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i 


SCHOOLS 


AND 


MASTERS  OF  PAINTING 


WITH    AN    APPENDIX 


ON    THE 


PRINCIPAL  GALLERIES  OF  EUROPE. 


BY 

A.    G.     RADCLIFFE. 


ILL  US  TRA  TED. 


NEW     YORK: 
D.    APPLETON    AND    COMPANY, 

549    AND     551     BROADWAY. 
1876. 


ENTERED,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1876, 

By  D.  APPLETON  &  CO., 
In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


Annex 

NX) 

50 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER    I. 

PAGAN  PAINTING. 

PAGB 

Painting  less  enduring  than  Sculpture. — Invented  by  Egyptians'. — 
Tombs  and  Temples. — Painting  in  Egypt. — Painting  in  Assyria. — 
Painting  in  Greece. — Zeuxis  and  Apelles. — Mosaic  Pavements. — 
Greek  Relic  in  Cortona. — "  Aldobrandini  Marriage." — Painting  in 
Etruria. — Painting  in  Rome. — Mural  Remains  of  Pompeii. — De- 
cline of  Pagan  Painting I 

CHAPTER    II. 

RISE  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

Revival  of  Art  in  Catacombs. — Early  Symbols. — Primitive  Christian 
Paintings. — Portraits  of  Christ  in  the  Catacombs. — Profile  of  Christ. 
— Letter  of  Lentulus. — Abgarus  Portrait  of  Christ. — The  "  Archi- 
rotopeton." — Handkerchief  of  St.  Veronica. — Portraits  of  Virgin 
Mary. — Madonnas  of  St.  Luke. — Types  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul. 
— Accession  of  Constantine. — Basilicas  and  Mosaics. — Mosaics  of 
Rome  and  Ravenna  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .II 

CHAPTER    III. 

BYZANTINE  AND  MINIATURE  PAINTING. 

Empire  of  Constantine. — Greek  Ecclesiastical  Art. — Early  "  Crucifix- 
ions."— Byzantine  Stiffness  and  Splendor. — Byzantine  Mosaics. — 
Panel  and  Altar  Pictures. — Emblems  of  Father,  Son,  and  Spirit. — 
Sacred  Art-Manufactories. — Miniature  Painting  in  Fourth  and 
Fifth  Centuries. — MSS.  of  the  Vatican. — French  Illuminations. — 
German  Miniatures. — Anglo  -  Saxon  MSS. — Miniatures  of  San 
Marco  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  ,21 


iv      .  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER    IV. 

EARLY  ITALIAN   PAINTING. 

PAGE 

Roman  Mosaics  of  Ninth  Century. — Early  Roman  Frescoes. — Roman 
Mosaics  of  Twelfth  and  Thirteenth  Centuries. — Andrea  Tan. — 
Revival  of  Art  under  Cimabue. — His  Predecessors. — Guido  of 
Sienna. — Giunta  Pisano. — Margaritone  of  Arezzo. — Life  and  Works 
of  Cimabue. — St.  Francis,  and  his  Church  at  Assisi. — Duccio  of 
Sienna. — Life  and  Works  of  Giotto. — Pupils  of  Giotto. — Simone 
Memmi. — Andrea  Orcagna. — Campo  Santo  of  Pisa. — Bernardo 
Orcagno.— Spinello  Aretino  and  his  "  Lucifer." — Life  and  Death 
of  Fra  Angelico 29 

CHAPTER    V. 
TRADITIONS  OF  PAINTING. 

Religious  Nature  of  Mediaeval  Art. — Fresco  and  Tempera  Painting. — 
Ancient  Altar-Pieces. — Significance  of  Colors. — Old  -  Testament 
Tradition. — Angels  and  Archangels. — Sibyls. — St.  John  Baptist. — 
Legends  of  the  Virgin  Mary  from  her  Conception  to  her  Corona- 
tion.— Life  and  Legends  of  Christ. — His  Nativity,  Adoration,  Pre- 
sentation, and  Flight  into  Egypt ;  Transfiguration,  Last  Supper, 
and  Incidents  of  Passion,  Crucifixion,  and  Burial. — Legend  of 
Descent  into  Limbus. — Resurrection  and  Ascension. — Last  Judg- 
ment.— Attributes  of  the  Apostles. — Legends  of  the  Magdalene, 
of  the  Early  Fathers,  of  St.  Christopher,  St.  Sebastian,  and  St. 
Lawrence ;  of  St.  Catharine,  St.  Margaret,  St.  Agnes,  and  St.  Ce- 
cilia.— Books  of  Reference 58 

CHAPTER    VI. 

ITALIAN  PAINTING  IN  THE  FIFTEENTH   CENTURY. 

The  Renaissance. — Culture  and  Changes. — Florentine  Influences.— 
Ghiberti  and  his  Gates  of  Bronze. — Paolo  Uccello. — Masolino. — 
Masaccio  and  the  Brancacci  Chapel. — The  Artist-Monk,  Filippo 
Lippi. — Benozzo  Gozzoli. — Cosimo  Roselli.  Antonello  da  Mes- 
sina, the  First  Italian  Oil-Painter. — Andrea  Castagno. — Andrea 
Mantegna  and  the  Paduan  School. — Verocchio,  Master  of  Da 
Vinci. — Signorelli. — Ghirlandajo. — Botticelli. — Filippino  Lippi. — 
The  School  of  Bologna,  and  Francia. — Decline  of  Siennese  Art  and 
Rise  of  Umbrian. — Gentile  da  Fabriano. — Alunno. — Perugino. — 


CONTENTS.  v 

PACK 

Pinturrichio  and  the  Father  of  Raphael. — Savonarola  at  Florence. 
— His  Artist-Adherents. — Fra  Bartolomeo. — His  Friend  Alberti- 
nelli. — Raffaellino  del  Garbo. — Lorenzi  di  Credi  .  .  .  .93 

CHAPTER    VII. 

LEONARDO   DA  VINCI  AND  MICHAEL  ANGELO. 

Genius  of  Leonardo. — Scarcity  of  his  Works. — His  Youth  and  Educa- 
tion.— His  Medusa  Shield. — Versatility  of  his  Talents. — His  Re- 
moval to  Milan. — His  Equestrian  Statue. — Art  Labors  and  Writ- 
ings.— "  The  Last  Supper." — His  Return  to  Florence. — Journey  to 
Rome. — Friendship  with  Francis  I. — Death  at  Amboise. — His 
Pictures  and  Pupils. — Bernardino  Luini. — Michael  Angelo. — His 
Birth  and  Vocation. — Patronage  of  the  Medici. — Genius  as  a 
Sculptor. — The  Colossal  "  David." — Rivalry  with  Leonardo. — 
Visit  to  Rome. — Mausoleum  of  Pope  Julius. — Quarrels  with  the 
Pope. — Sistine  Chapel. — Medici  Sacristy. — Florentine  Vicissitudes. 
— "  Last  Judgment." — Vittoria  Colonna. — Old  Age  and  Death. — 
Daniele  da  Volterra 124 

CHAPTER    VIII. 

RAPHAEL  AND   CORREGGIO. 

Childhood  of  Raphael. — Studies  with  Perugino. — Early  Works. — 
"  Marriage  of  the  Virgin." — Sojourn  at  Florence. — Florentine 
Madonnas. — Invitation  to  Rome. — Frescoes  of  the  Vatican. — 
Stanze  and  Loggie. — Cartoons  and  Tapestries. — Farnesina  Fres- 
coes.— Portraits  and  Easel-Pictures. — "  The  Fornarina." — Roman 
Madonnas  and  Holy  Families. — Altar -Pieces. — "The  Transfig- 
uration."— Fame  and  Fortune. — Illness  and  Death. — Birth  of  Cor- 
reggio. — His  Youthful  Genius  and  Secluded  Life. — Frescoes  at 
Parma. — Classical  Pictures. — "  II  Giorno  "  and  "  Santa  Notte." 
— "  The  Reading  Magdalene." — Remaining  Works. — Character 
ofCorreggio -.  157 

CHAPTER    IX. 

PAINTING  IN  VENICE. 

Rise  of  Painting  in  Venice. — The  Vivarini. — The  Bellini  Family.— 
Gentile  and  Gian  Bellini. — Giorgione,  the  Master  of  Color. — Birth 
of  Titian. — First  Employment  with  Giorgione. — Mythological  and 


vi  CONTENTS. 

FACE 

Religious  Paintings. — Meeting  with  Charles  V. — Celebrated  Por- 
traits.— Venetian  Life. — Summons  to  Rome. — Enumeration  of  his 
Works.— Last  Years  at  Venice.— Death,  of  the  Plague.— Palma 
Vecchio  and  his  Daughter  Violante. — Pordenone. — Sebastian  del 
Piombo.— Bonifazio. — Moretto. — Moroni. — Paris  Bordone. — Tin- 
toretto.— Paul  Veronese  and  his  Feasts. — The  Bassano  Family. — 
Canale  and  Canaletto 187 

CHAPTER    X. 

LATER  ITALIAN  PAINTING. 

Andrea  del  Sarto. — Francia  Bigio. — Pontormo. — Bronzino. — The  Al- 
lori  Family. — Vasari,  the  Artist-Author. — II  Sodoma. — Giulio  Ro- 
mano and  other  Pupils  of  Raphael. — Garofalo. — The  Brothers 
Dossi. — Parmagianino. — Baroccio,  Zuccaro,  and  the  Later  Romans. 
— The  Eclectics  of  Bologna. — The  Carracci. — Domenichino. — 
Guido  Reni. — Albani. — Guercino. — Lanfranco. — The  Xaturalisti 
or  Tenebrosi.— Caravaggio. — Salvator  Rosa. — Luca  Giordano. — 
Artists  of  Seventeenth  Century. — Sassoferrato. — Carlo  Dolce. — 
Carlo  Maratta. — Romanelli. — Battoni. — Close  of  Painting  in  Italy.  219 

CHAPTER    XI. 

EARLY   GERMAN  AND  FLEMISH  PAINTING. 

Art  in  the  North. — German  MSS. — Requirements  of  Gothic  Archi- 
tecture.— School  of  Bohemia. — School  of  Cologne. — Meister  Wil- 
helm  and  Meister  Stephan. — School  of  Flanders. — The  Brothers 
Van  Eyck. — Invention  of  Oil-Painting. — Adoration  of  the  Lamb. 
— Margaret  van  Eyck. — Ancient  Flemish  Painters. — Roger  van 
der  Weyden. — Memling. — The  Shrine  of  St.  Ursula. — Mabuse. — 
Bernard  van  Orley  and  Michael  Coxie. — Quintin  Matsys  .  .  247 

CHAPTER    XII. 

GERMAN   PAINTING  IN  THE  FIFTEENTH  AND   SIXTEENTH  CENTURIES. 

Martin  ScMJn. — The  School  of  Nuremberg. — Wohlgemuth. — Albrecht 
Dttrer.— His  Wife  and  Works.— Wanderings  in  Italy.— Influence 
on  his  Style. — Paintings  and  Woodcuts. — "  The  Knight,  the  Devil, 
and  Death." — "  Melancolia." — Later  Pictures. — Death  at  Nurem- 
berg.—Followers  and  Pupils.— Artists  of  Ulm  and  Augsburg.— 


CONTENTS.  vii 

PAGE 

The  Holbein  Family. — Hans  Holbein  the  Younger. — His  Eng- 
lish and  German  Portraits. — The  "  Meyer  Madonna."— The 
"  Dance  of  Death." — Lucas  Cranach,  the  Painter  of  the  Reforma- 
tion ,  268 


CHAPTER    XIII. 
LATER  FLEMISH  AND   GERMAN  PAINTING. 

Sustermann. — Frans  Floris. — The  Pourbus  Family. — Birth  of  Land- 
scape-Painting in  the  Netherlands. — Matthew  and  Paul  Bril.— • 
The  Breughel  Family  and  Genre  Painting. — Peter  Paul  Rubens. 
— His  Fertility  and  Success. — Snyders,  the  Animal  -  Painter. — 
Jordaens. —  Vandyck.  —  Portraits  by  Vandyck.  —  Teniers.  —  His 
"  Temptation  of  St.  Anthony  "  and  other  Pictures. — Van  der  Meu- 
len. — Philippe  de  Champagne. —  Dennar. —  Dietrich.  —  Raphael 
Mengs. — His  Pupil  Angelica  Kaufmann. — Future  Revival  of  Ger- 
man Art  ...........  288 

0 
CHAPTER    XIV. 

PAINTING  IN  HOLLAND. 

Founding  of  Dutch  School. — Cornelis  Engelbrechtsen. — Lucas  of  Ley- 
den. — Dutch  Landscape-Painting. — Pictures  of  Cuyp. — Mierevelt's 
Portraits. — Frank  Hals  and  his  Apprentice  Brauwer. — Gerard  of 
the  Night. — Rembrandt  van  Rhyn. — Peculiarities  of  Light  and 
Shade. — "  The  Night  -  Watch." — Poetic  Sacred  Scenes. — Pupils 
of  Rembrandt. — Gerard  Dow. — Terburg. — Van  der  Heist. — Pa- 
tient Genre  Painters. — Van  Ostade.  —  Steen.  —  Mieris.  —  Schal- 
ken. — Netscher. — Van  der  Werff. — Ruysdael's  Landscapes. — Berg- 
hem. — Wouverman. — Paul  Potter  and  his  Animals. — Van  de 
Velde's  and  Backhuysen's  Marine  Views. — Painters  of  Interiors 
and  Exteriors. — Jan  Weenix. — Hondekoeter. — Kalfs  Kitchen- 
Scenes. — Flower  and  Fruit  Pieces. — De  Heem,  Van  Huysum,  and 
Rachel  Ruysch 310 

CHAPTER    XV. 

PAINWNG  IN  SPAIN. 

Peculiarities  of  Spanish  Art. — Religious  Element.— Spanish  MSS.— 
National  Schools  of  Painting. — Age  of  Charles  V. — Luis  de  Var- 


viii  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

gas. — Juan  Joanes. — The  Divine  Morales. — Coello's  Portraits. — 
El  Mudo. — Cespedes,  the  Poet. — Roelas. — Zurbaran. — Pacheco, 
the  Inquisitor. — Alonzo  Cano. — School  of  Valencia. — The  Ribal- 
tas  and  Ribera. — Velasquez. — His  Appointment  as  Court-Painter. 
— "Las  Meninas."— His  Death  at  Madrid. — Murillo  and  his 
Works. — Vald6s  Leal. — Decline  of  Art  in  Spain. — Foreign  Paint- 
ers.— Luca  Giordano  and  Raphael  Mengs. — Francisco  Goya. — 
Dispersion  of  Spanish  Pictures 336 

CHAPTER    XVI. 

PAINTING  IN  FRANCE. 

French  Illuminations. — Ancient  Frescoes. — King  Rene\  of  Anjou. — 
Jean  Cousin. — Clouet. — Francis  I.  and  Fontainebleau. — Simon 
Vouet. — Callot. — Poussin. — Landscapes,  of  Claude  Lorraine. — 
"  Arcadian  Shepherds." — Caspar  Dughet. — Le  Sueur,  the  French 
Raphael. — Charles  Le  Brun. — Mignard. — Rigaud. — Watteau  and 
the  "  Pompadour  Genre." — Vernet's  Marine  Views. — Greuze.— 
Vien. — New  Era  in  Art. — David,  the  P^pter  of  the  Empire. — 
Trioson,  Gros,  Ingres,  and  Ge'rard. — Prudhon. — Madame  Lebrun. 
— Isabey. — Granet. — Horace  Vernet. — GeVicault. — "  The  Raft  of 
the  M6duse." — Leopold  Robert 369 

CHAPTER    XVII. 

PAINTING  IN  ENGLAND. 

Progress  of  Art  in  England. — Foreign  Portraits. — Collection  of  Charles 
I. — Sir  Peter  Lely. — Sir  Godfrey  Kneller. — Italian  Importations. 
— English  Taste. — Thornhill. — Hogarth. — Sir  Joshua  Reynolds. 
Romney. —  Gainsborough. — West.  —  Copley.  —  Fuseli.  —  Barry. — 
Northcote. — Opie. — Flaxman. — Blake. — Portraits  of  Raeburn  and 
Lawrence. —  English  Landscapists. —  Turner. —  Constable.  —  Cal- 
cott. — Collins. — "  High  Art." — Haydon. —  Wilkie. —  Nasmyth. — 
Mulready.  —  Etty.  —  Eastlake.  —  Leslie.  —  Stanfield.  —  Roberts's 
Spanish  Views. — Water-Colorists 39! 

CHAPTER    XVIII. 
PAINTING  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 

Art-Revival  in  Germany. — Cornelius.— Overbeck. — Schadow. — Kaul- 
bach.— Sympathy  in  France. — Ary  Scheflfer. — Paul  Delaroche.— 


CONTENTS.  jx 

PAGE 

Delacroix.  —  Recent  and  Living  Artists.  —  Ge*r6me.  —  Eastern 
Scenes. — Decamps.  —  Landelle.  —  Bonnat.  —  Hamon.  —  Fleury. — 
Boulanger. — Dore". — Meissonier. — Bouguereau. — Breton.  —  Millet. 
— Frere. — Merle. — Henriette  Brown. — Cabanel. — Genre  Painters. 
— Landscapists. — Constantine  Troyon. — Auguste  and  Rosa  Bon- 
heur. — English  School. — Landseer.— ^Maclise. — Egg. — Pre-Rapha- 
elites. — Holman  Hunt. — Millais. — British  Landscapists. — Watts 
and  Leighton. — Portrait-Painters. — Sacred  Subjects. — Genre  Paint- 
ers.— Frith  and  Faed. — J.  F.  Lewis. — Scottish  Artists. — Book-Il- 
lustrators.— Water-Colorists. — American  Art. — Allston. — Stuart. — 
Leutze. — 'Huntington. — American  Portrait-Painters. — Genre  and 
Figure  Painters. — Church,  Bierstadt,  Kensett,  Cole,  and  other 
Landscapists. — Marine  Painters. — Bradford's  Icebergs. — Catlin's 
Indian  Pictures 421 


CHAPTER    XIX. 

SCHOOLS  OF   PAINTING. 

Review. — Progress  of  Art. — National  Characteristics. — Byzantine  Art. 
— Italian  Schools. — Schools  of  Sienna,  of  Pisa,  of  Florence. — List 
of  Florentine  Artists. — Subdivisions. — The  Lombard  School. — 
The  Umbrian  School.  —  The  Roman  School.  —  The  Venetian 
School. — The  Eclectics. — The  Naturalisti. — Painting  in  the  North. 
— School  of  Bohemia ;  of  Cologne. — Flemish  School. — German 
School. — Dutch  School. — Spanish  School. — French  School. — Eng- 
lish School. — American  School. — Modern  Painting  .  .  .  448 


CHAPTER    XX. 

WORLD-PICTURES. 

Raphael's  "  Transfiguration." — "  Sistine  Madonna." — Michael  Ange- 
lo's  "  Last  Judgment." — Domenichino's  "  Last  Communion  of  St. 
Jerome."— Volterra's  "  Descent  from  the  Cross." — Leonardo  da 
Vinci's  "  Last  Supper." — Titian's  "  Assumption  of  the  Virgin."— 
Correggio's  "  Nativity,  or  Santa  Notte." — Guide's  "  Aurora." — 
Guide's  Portrait  of  "  Beatrice  Cenci." — Murillo's  "  Immaculate 
Conception." — Rubens's  "  Descent  from  the  Cross  "  .  .  .  464 


x  CONTENTS. 

APPENDIX. 

PAGB 

GALLERIES  OF  FLORENCE. — Academy  of  Fine  Arts — The  Uffizi — The 

Pitti 489 

GALLERIES  OF  ROME. — The  Vatican — The  Capitol — Private  Galleries 

— The  Doria — Sciarra — Borghese — Corsini       ....         501 

GALLERY  OF  VENICE 510 

GALLERY  OF  MADRID 517 

GALLERY  OF  THE  LOUVRE 524 

GALLERY  OF  LONDON 534 

GALLERY  OF  DRESDEN .    542 

GALLERY  OF  MUNICH 553 

GALLERY  OF  BERLIN  \  ...        560 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


CHAPTER   I. 

PAGAN     PAINTING. 

THE  golden  age  of  Painting  lies  in  the  Christian  centuries. 
The  legacies  of  Beauty  and  Art  which  have  come  down  from 
the  Old  World  exist  in  undecaying  stone,  not  in  fading  color 
or  transitory  light  and  shade.  Sculpture  glories  in  the  an- 
tique, but  pagan  pictures  were  only  born  to  die.  Some  charm- 
ing fragments  indeed  remain,  such  as  the  frescoes  of  Pompeii 
and  other  mural  decorations;  but  the  materials  of  the  art 
were  too  perishable,  and  the  art  itself  too  lightly  rooted,  to 
be  spared  by  Time.  Yet  the  history  of  painting  is  coeval 
with  the  Pyramids ;  and  the  curious  mummy-cloths  which  we 
may  examine  in  our  museums,  and  the  tomb-pictures,  of  which 
travelers  tell  us,  in  the  ruins  along  the  Nile,  are  still  left  us  as 
the  records  of  the  alphabet  of  the  art.  According  to  Pliny, 
the  Egyptians  boasted  that  they  had  invented  painting  six 
thousand  years  before  it  passed  into  Greece.  Making  all  due 
allowance  for  the  poetic  license  of  such  a  statement,  it  is  at 


2  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTEKS  OF  PAINTING. 

least  certain  that  the  earliest  pictorial  attempts  among  all 
nations  were  outline  figures,  traced  in  profile  upon  walls,  and 
that  they  were  first  introduced  as  the  adornments  of  Egyptian 
tombs  and  temples.  These  figures  were  probably  sketched, 
with  a  reed  or  rush,  in  red  and  black.  The  next  advance  was 
to  fill  the  outlines  with  a  flat,  uniform  tint  without  any  shad- 
ing. An  appreciation  of  the  harmony  of  colors  is  intuitive  in 
Oriental  lands,  and  was  peculiarly  felt  by  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians, whose  favorite  combination  was  red,  blue,  and  green. 
Black  and  yellow  were  also  put  in  juxtaposition.  The  blue 
had  the  brilliancy  of  our  modern  "  smalt,"  and  was  composed 
of  fine  glass ;  the  green  was  also  a  glass  powder,  mixed  with 
a  little  ochre.  Chalk-white  and  ivory-black  gave  strong  and 
decided  tones.  Pink,  purple,  orange,  and  brown,  were  known 
to  them,  though  not  so  often  employed.  "  Different  colors 
were  used  for  different  things;  but  almost  invariably  the 
same  color  for  the  same  thing.  Thus  men  and  women  were 
usually  red,  the  men  several  shades  darker  than  the  women ; 
water  blue,  birds  blue  and  green,  and  so  on." 

The  first  subjects  of  these  mural  pictures  were  principally 
battle  and  hunting  scenes,  intended  to  impress  the  mind  with 
the  majesty  and  authority  of  warlike  and  despotic  rulers. 
Such  are  still  to  be  found  in  the  temples  of  Thebes.  In  the 
tombs  were  also  sacred  representations,  suggestive  of  the  des- 
tiny of  the  soul  after  death,  and  many  sketches  descriptive  of 
the  private  life,  trades,  manners,  and  customs  of  the  people. 
The  mode  of  drawing  the  human  figure  was  strictly  conven- 
tional, and  could  not  deviate  from  certain  rules  established  by 
the  priests.  The  faces  were  in  profile,  but  with  a  front  view  of 
the  eye  and  shoulders.  The  expression  of  the  features  never 


PAGAN  PAINTING.  3 

varied.  "  Every  portion  of  a  picture  was  conceived  by  itself, 
and  inserted  as  it  was  wanted  to  complete  the  scene;  and 
when  the  walls  of  a  building  where  a  subject  was  to  be  drawn 
had  been  accurately  ruled  with  squares,  the  figures  were 
introduced  and  fitted  to  this  mechanical  arrangement.  The 
members  were  appended  to  the  body,  and  these  squares  regu- 
lated their  form  and  distribution,  in  whatever  posture  they 
might  be  placed." 

Under  such  limitations  it  is  easily  understood  that  Egyp- 
tian art  could  have  neither  depth  nor  progress.  A  few  pict- 
ures on  wood  were  indeed  attempted.  Herodotus  relates 
that  Amasis  sent  a  portrait  of  himself  to  Cyrene ;  and  Wil- 
kinson mentions  a  subject,  discovered  at  Beni-Hassan,  dating 
about  nine  hundred  years  before  the  siege  of  Troy,  repre- 
senting an  artist  painting  on  panel  a  calf  and  antelope  over- 
taken by  a  dog.  It  must,  however,  be  remembered  that  sculpt- 
ure and  painting  were  entirely  subservient  to  their  colossal 
and  wonderful  architecture.  The  temple  and  the  tomb  were 
the  culmination  of  Egyptian  life,  and  the  adornment  of  these 
was  the  glory  of  the  nation.  From  the  ruins  of  naked  granite 
which  remain  to  us  we  can  form  but  little  idea  of  the  true 
aspect  of  Egyptian  buildings.  They  were  colored,  we  are 
told,  within  and  without,  even  the  bass-reliefs  and  the  statues 
of  the  sphinxes  being  painted.  The  stone  was  covered  with 
stucco,  richly  overlaid  with  brilliant  designs ;  the  ceilings 
were  blue,  and  studded  with  stars  to  represent  the  firmament ; 
while  gilding  was  occasionally  employed  to  heighten  the  effect 
of  the  other  decorations,  as  in  the  temple  at  Kalabshee  in 
Nubia.  Thus  the  universal  passion  for  ornament  found  ex- 
pression, and  the  primeval  monuments  of  the  world's  civili- 


4  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

zation  had  their  own  splendor  as  well  as  their  own  sub- 
limity. 

In  the  Egyptian  collections  which  are  preserved  in  most 
national  museums  the  paintings  upon  the  mummy-cloths  and 
cases  will  be  of  great  interest  to  the  student.  The  colors  of 
these — mostly  blue,  green,  red,  and  yellow — are  still  fresh 
and  bright,  and  the  designs  take  us  back  to  the  days  of  the 
Pharaohs.  The  faces  are  frequently  intended  as  portraits 
of  the  deceased,  while  the  emblems  and  hieroglyphics  usually 
relate  to  the  state  of  the  departed  soul.  Sometimes  the 
goddess  Isis  is  seen  throwing  her  arms  around  the  enswathed 
feet ;  sometimes  the  dead  is  being  carried,  in  the  spirit-boat, 
across  the  sacred  lake;  sometimes  there  are  judgment-scenes 
and  funeral-rites,  depicted  not  only  on  the  mummy-cloths, 
but  on  the  papyri  and  vases  which  were  deposited  in  the 
tombs.  In  the  British  Museum  are  also  a  color-box,  some 
pallets,  fragments  of  colors  and  brushes,  such  as  were  used 
by  Egyptian  painters.  Our  own  collection,  made  by  Mr.  Ab- 
bott, now  in  the  rooms  of  the  Historical  Society,  New  York, 
though  not  large,  is  worthy  of  careful  examination. 

The  art  of  Assyria  was  of  a  character  similar  to  that  of 
Egypt ;  but  its  architecture,  being  mostly  of  unbaked  brick, 
has  so  entirely  disappeared  that  we  have  only  the  traditions 
of  the  magnificence  of  Babylon  with  its  gayly-painted  palaces, 
whose  sole  relics  are  the  ruined  heaps  and  fragments  of  tiles 
still  elaborately  covered  with  figures  of  animals  and  flowers. 
Layard  also  found  remains  of  pictures  on  the  walls  at  Nim- 
roud  and  Khorsabad,  and  traces  of  color  are  yet  to  be  seen 
upon  the  Assyrian  bass-reliefs  preserved  in  London  and  at 
the  Louvre.  In  this  connection  it  is  curious  to  notice  the 


PAGAN  PAINTING.  5 

words  of  the  prophet  Ezekiel,  chapter  twenty-third,  verse 
fourteenth,  who  speaks  of  "men  portrayed  upon  the  wall; 
the  images  of  the  Chaldeans  portrayed  with  vermilion." 

The  painting  of  vases  and  statues  seems  to  have  been  an 
early  employment  of  color  among  the  Greeks.  They  were  at 
first  executed  in  monochrome,  and,  as  art  advanced,  were 
arranged  in  imitation  of  real  life.  Color  and  gilding  were 
sometimes  used  in  architecture,  as  appears  from  the  vestiges 
on  the  temple  of  Theseus  at  Athens.  Even  the  Parthenon 
"  presents  remains  of  painting  on  some  members  of  the  cor- 
nice ;  many  colored  devices  remain  on  the  upper  part  of  the 
walls  in  the  interior ;  and  the  ground  of  the  frieze,  contain- 
ing the  reliefs  of  the  Panathenaic  procession,  was  blue." 
Recent  excavations  have  also  shown  traces  of  elaborate 
coloring  in  the  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus ;  yet  the  Greek 
artist,  whose  mission  was  to  realize  the  beautiful  everywhere, 
no  longer  held  painting  as  a  mere  adjunct  of  architecture, 
but  richly  multiplied  pictures  on  wood,  of  historical  or  my- 
thological subjects.  Pliny  informs  us  that  encaustic  paint- 
ing, in  colors  boiled  in  wax  and  oil,  was  known  before  the 
epoch  of  Aristides.  There  is  a  tradition  of  a  picture  of  the 
battle  of  the  Magnesians,  executed  about  700  B.  c.,  for  which 
the  King  of  Lydia  paid  its  weight  in  gold ;  but  the  most  fa- 
mous of  the  early  Athenian  masters  was  Polygnotus,  who  lived 
about  the  year  462,  and  adorned  the  temples  of  Athens  with 
his  genius.  He  painted  at  Delphi  the  "  Taking  of  Troy  "  and 
the  "  Visit  of  Odysseus  to  the  Under  World  ;  "  and  although 
he  only  worked  in  outline,  in  four  unshaded  colors,  on  a 
colored  ground,  yet  his  reliefs  were  extolled  "  for  clear,  har- 
monious composition,  for  delicacy  of  drawing,  for  fullness  of 


6  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS   OF  PAINTING. 

expression  in  the  figures,  and  nobleness  in  the  forms."  In- 
deed, it  was  said  of  his  Polyxena  that  "  the  whole  Trojan  War 
lay  in  her  eyelids." 

In  the  next  generation  succeeded  Apollodorus  of  Athens, 
who,  from  his  skillful  management  of  light  and  shade,  re- 
ceived the  name  of  the  "  Shadow-Painter."  After  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian  War  the  city  of  Ephesus  became  the  centre  of  art, 
and  Parrhasius  and  Zeuxis  the  masters  of  the  period.  It  was 
one  of  these  who  painted  grapes  at  which  the  birds  pecked ; 
while  the  other  executed  a  curtain  so  well  as  to  deceive  his 
rival  himself.  The  pride  of  Zeuxis  was  equal  to  his  genius. 
In  his  later  years  he  would  present  his  pictures  to  his  friends, 
because  he  considered  nobody  rich  enough  to  pay  for  them 
sufficiently.  Sometimes  persons  complained  of  the  slowness 
with  which  he  worked.  "  It  is,"  he  replied,  "  because  I  work 
for  immortality."  He  is  reported  to  have  died  of  laughing 
over  the  likeness  of  an  old  woman  which  he  had  painted. 

But  to  the  great  Apelles,  who  flourished  in  the  latter  half 
of  the  fourth  century,  the  palm  of  classic  painting  properly 
belongs.  Any  thing  attempted  by  this  Raphael  of  antiquity, 
whether  portraits,  or  heroic  or  mythological  subjects,  seems 
to  have  roused  in  his  countrymen  the  greatest  enthusiasm. 
Grace  and  beauty  were  the  constant  attributes  of  his  pencil. 
His  most  celebrated  work  was  the  famous  Venus,  "  Aphrodite 
emerging  from  the  waves,  and  wringing  out  with  her  hands 
the  moisture  and  foam  of  the  sea."  Pliny  tells  us  of  his 
portraits  of  Alexander  the  Great,  especially  the  one  in  the 
character  of  Jupiter  holding  the  thunder-bolts,  designed  for 
the  temple  at  Ephesus.  He  painted  another  of  Alexander 
mounted  on  Bucephalus,  which  at  first  did  not  give  satis- 


PAGAN  PAINTING.  7 

faction ;  but  a  mare,  accidentally  passing,  began  to  neigh  at 
the  sight  of  the  charger,  and  the  artist,  addressing  the  hero, 
said  to  him,  "  Is  it  possible  that  this  animal  is  a  better  judge 
of  painting  than  the  King  of  Macedon  ? " 

A  number  of  the  pictures  of  Apelles  were  long  held  as 
treasures  in  the  palaces  of  the  Roman  emperors.  They  were 
also  preserved  in  Grecian  art-galleries,  such  as  that  of  the 
Acropolis  at  Athens.  Liibke  refers  to  some  fragments  of  the 
works  of  other  artists  of  this  period  which  still  exist  in  the 
tombs  of  Psestum,  and  in  the  remains  of  Psestum  which  have 
been  carried  to  the  museum  at  Naples. 

After  the  age  of  Alexander  painting  declined  to  such 
representations  of  ordinary  life  and  domestic  scenes  as  are 
known  in  modern  days  by  the  name  of  genre  pictures.  An- 
other branch  of  art,  however,  seems  to  have  then  developed 
in  the  mosaic  floor  and  ceiling  decorations,  popular  among 
both  Greeks  and  Romans,  many  of  which  have  come  down 
to  the  present  day,  and  may  be  seen  in  the  Roman  collec- 
tions, and  in  the  ruins  of  the  baths  of  Caracalla  and  the 
palace  of  the  Caesars.  They  were  composed  of  bits  of  pre- 
cious marbles  or  vitreous  pastes,  in  varied  colors  and  designs. 
One  of  the  most  curious  was  at  Pergamos,  and  was  called 
"  The  Unswept  House,"  because  the  floor  ingeniously  rep- 
resented the  remains  of  food,  and  all  that  is  generally  swept 
away. 

Another  interesting  relic  is  to  be  found  at  the  town  of 
Cortona,  Italy,  in  whose  museum  is  preserved,  according  to 
Jarves,  a  most  valuable  example  of  Grecian  easel-painting. 
"  It  is  the  head  and  bust  of  a  young  girl,  one-third  life-size, 
holding  a  lyre,  painted  in  a  wax  medium,  on  a  fragment  of 


8  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

slate.  It  was  discovered  in  the  last  century  by  a  peasant, 
in  the  earth  of  his  farm.  Supposing  it  to  be  a  votive  Ma- 
donna he  gave  it  an  honorable  position  in  his  cottage ;  but 
when  told  by  a  priest  that  it  was  an  idol,  he  used  it  to  stop  a 
hole  in  his  oven.  In  this  position  it  was  seized  by  his  land- 
lord, and  after  various  adventures  was  given  to  the  museum, 
on  condition  of  being  perpetually  kept  at  Cortona."  Among 
the  treasures  of  the  Vatican  is  still  to  be  seen  the  famous 
fresco  of  the  Nozze  Aldobrandini,  one  of  the  rarest  specimens 
of  ancient  art  in  Rome,  representing,  in  a  composition  of  ten 
figures,  a  Greek  marriage-ceremony — possibly  the  nuptials  of 
Peleus  and  Thetis.  It  was  found  on  the  Esquiline  Hill,  near 
the  arch  of  Gallienus,  early  in  the  seventeenth  century,  and 
became  the  property  of  Cardinal  Aldobrandini;  but  was 
finally  sold  to  Pope  Pius  VII.,  for  more  than  ten  thousand 
dollars,  in  the  year  1818. 

Passing  into  Italy,  we  come  to  many  Etruscan  tombs ;  as 
well  as  to  numberless  vases,  whose  graceful  designs  are  famil- 
iar to  all  travelers,  but  whose  workmanship  is  suggestive  of 
Grecian  skill.  The  tomb-paintings  were  generally  colored 
outlines,  sometimes  of  gay  and  pleasant  scenes,  with  green 
branches  placed  between  their  compartments ;  sometimes  of 
serious  and  tender  subjects,  such  as  death-bed  farewells, 
where  children  embrace  their  dying  parents,  and  by-standers 
mournfully  watch  the  parting.  "A  spirit-horse  for  a  man, 
and  a  chariot  for  a  woman,  are  depicted  quietly  waiting  out- 
side, with  their  winged  attendants,  until  they  are  needed  to 
carry  the  departed  to  their  new  land."  Copies  of  several  of 
these  wall-paintings  may  be  studied  in  the  Etruscan  Museum 
of  the  Vatican.  In  some  of  them  horses  are  represented  in 


PAGAN  PAINTING.  9 

bright  red  or  bright  blue,  or  black  and  red.  There  is  also  a 
tradition  of  an  Etrurian  artist,  who,  previous  to  the  founding 
of  Rome,  painted  at  Ardea  the  cupola  of  the  temple  of  Juno, 
which  retained  its  colors  till  the  first  Christian  century. 

Among  the  Romans  native  talent  found  comparatively 
small  encouragement,  their  intercourse  with  the  Greeks  en- 
abling them  to  supply  themselves  with  much  better  paintings 
than  their  own  artists  could  produce.  Early  Roman  work 
was  principally  decorative,  though  portraits  were  also  in 
favor.  If  we  rely  upon  Pliny's  authority,  we  may  believe  that 
their  landscape-painting  was  "  invented  "  in  the  time  of  Au- 
gustus. The  Roman  emperors  were  often  liberal  patrons  of 
art.  Julius  Caesar  is  said  to  have  paid  nearly  two  hundred 
thousand  dollars  of  our  money  for  two  pictures  of  Ajax  and 
Medea;  and  Nero  ordered  a  portrait  of  himself  to  be  exe- 
cuted on  a  canvas  more  than  120  feet  high.  This  painting 
was  afterward  destroyed  by  lightning. 

Remains  of  Graeco-Roman  art  are,  however,  the  most 
accessible  of  all  antique  labors.  The  mural  beauties  of  Pom- 
peii are  so  bright  and  fresh,  and  so  well  known  everywhere 
through  photographs  and  copies,  that  they  seem  almost  to 
belong  to  modern  times.  The  brilliant  reds  and  soft  yellows 
of  their  backgrounds  show  us  capacities  of  vivid  coloring 
among  the  ancients  which  we  should  never  have  imagined. 
Floating  dancing  girls,  lovely  as  Raphael's  "  Hours,"  legen- 
dary representations,  Grecian  myths,  fantastic  animals,  and 
genre  sketches,  mingled,  indeed,  with  many  designs  degrading 
to  all  true  art,  still  live  for  us  in  that  buried  city,  or  fade  into 
dimness  in  the  museum  of  Naples.  The  Parting  of  Achilles 
and  Briseus,  the  Battle  of  the  Amazons,  Perseus  and  Andro- 


10 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


meda,  Medea  and  her  Children,  and  many  Homeric  subjects, 
may  be  particularly  specified.  D'Anvers  observes :  "  The 
leading  peculiarity  of  all  these  paintings  is  the  intensity  of 
their  coloring,  accounted  for  by  the  Italian  custom  of  darken- 
ing rooms  in  the  daytime :  the  lower  portions  of  the  walls 
are  always  painted  in  the  strongest  colors,  and  the  upper  in 
white  or  very  faint  tints,  thus  affording  a  sense  of  repose  to 
the  eye  which  can  be  better  felt  than  described."  Similar 
mural  decorations  are  being  discovered  among  Roman  ex- 
cavations, as  in  the  baths  of  Titus,  in  the  house  of  the 
brother  of  Tiberius  on  the  Palatine  Hill,  and  in  villas  dug 
out  in  the  old  suburbs,  where  the  richness  and  beauty  of 
what  Time  has  preserved  hint  to  us  the  splendors  which  Time 
has  destroyed.  Exposure  to  the  air  soon  ruins  such  fresco 
or  distemper ;  but  we  know  not  what  treasures  may  yet  lie 
hid  in  the  soil  of  Italy,  nor  what  the  enterprise  of  the  present 
may  yet  reveal  to  us  of  the  lost  arts  of  the  past.  Practically, 
however,  painting  may  be  said  to  have  died  in  the  darkness 
of  heathenism,  and  to  have  been  born  again  in  the  light  and 
life  of  a  Christian  world.  Very  feebly  born  and  very  slowly 
nurtured,  its  struggles  and  triumphs  were  to  be  upon  a  dif- 
ferent field ;  and  the  first  efforts  of  its  new  mission  was  to 
appeal  through  the  senses  to  the  things  beyond  the  senses, 
and  thus  to  link  perception  to  imagination  and  faith. 


RISE    OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 


II 


CHAPTER   II. 

RISE   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

THE  burial-place  of  the  primitive  Christians  was  the  cradle 
of  Christian  art.  The  faith  which  struggled  in  the  early  cen- 
turies with  the  old  paganism  held  the  germ  of  all  the  beauty 
which  later  culture  has  developed  ;  but  the  life  of  the  saints 
was  first  to  be  lived — afterward  painted  !  The  martyrs  of 
the  Catacombs  had  little  need  of  visible  symbols  to  express 
or  stimulate  their  devotion.  They  were  even  at  first  suspi- 
cious of  such  symbols,  and  disdained  the  wisdom  and  the  grace 
of  this  world,  so  associated  with  profligacy  and  idol-worship. 
A  pictured  image  and  a  graven  image  stood  practically  in  the 
same  category,'  and  the  second  commandment  seemed  a 
warning  against  both.  But  the  natural  tendency  of  the  re- 
ligious instinct  to  avail  itself  of  some  external  signs  could  not 
be  long  repressed.  On  the  graves  of  believers  began  to  be 
carved  the  cross  ;  the  Alpha  and  Omega ;  the  X.  P.,  or  mono- 
gram of  the  name  of  Christ ;  the  Vine,  of  which  his  followers 
are  the  branches ;  the  Fish,  whose  letters  contained  the 
initials  of  "  Jesus  Christ,  Son  of  God,  Saviour ;  "  the  Palm, 
emblem  of  the  martyr's  victory ;  the  Dove,  which  represents 
the  Holy  Ghost ;  the  Peacock  and  Phoenix,  types  of  eternity 
and  the  resurrection ;  and  the  Ship,  which  signified  the 
Church.  Rudely  sculptured  or  rudely  sketched,  these  were 


12  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

the  infant  efforts  of  religious  art.  Soon  came  the  delineation 
of  Christ  as  the  Good  Shepherd,  mild  and  youthful,  with  the 
rescued  lamb  in  his  arms  or  upon  his  shoulders ;  but  no 
actual  scenes  from  his  life  are  represented  till  a  few  years 
later.  Events  from  the  Old  Testament  were  earlier  and  more 
freely  painted.  These  were  all  intended  to  have  some  alle- 
gorical meaning — the  sacrifice  of  Isaac,  Jonah  and  the  whale, 
Daniel  in  the  lions'  den,  the  history  of  Elijah,  and  the  history 
of  Moses,  being  regarded  as  furnishing  types  of  Christian 
truths.  Indeed,  in  the  Catacombs  of  both  Rome  and  Naples 
subjects  from  the  Old  Testament  are  far  more  frequent  than 
from  the  New.  Even  classic  mythology  is  interpreted  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  rising  faith.  Some  remarkable  paintings 
have  been  found  of  Christ  in  the  character  of  Orpheus,  sur- 
rounded by  wild  beasts  who  listen  entranced  to  the  sound  of 
his  lyre,  and  who  are  supposed  to  signify  the  wild  and  hea- 
then nations  of  the  earth,  subdued  by  the  power  of  Christi- 
anity. As  the  early  prejudices  against  art  began  to  soften, 
the  picturesque  and  touching  details  of  the  life  of  Christ  be- 
came the  natural  theme  of  the  painter,  while  the  old  symbols 
multiplied,  and  their  meaning  extended.  The  four  beasts  of 
the  Apocalypse  represented  the  four  Evangelists — the  human 
face  for  St.  Matthew,  because  he  begins  with  the  human  gener- 
ation of  our  Lord ;  the  lion  for  St.  Mark,  in  allusion  to  his 
clear  account  of  the  resurrection ;  the  ox  for  St.  Luke,  be- 
cause he  dwells  upon  the  Saviour's  sacrificial  character ;  and 
the  eagle  for  St.  John,  because  of  the  apostle's  lofty  contem- 
plations and  undazzled  gaze  upon  truth.  These  four  were 
occasionally  combined  into  one  mysterious  emblem,  called  a 
Tetramorph.  From  the  crosses  then  drawn  or  cut  four  rivers 


S  FVDEN  1  IAN 


PAINTING  FROM  THE  CATACOMBS. 


RISE   OF  CHRISTIAN  ART.  !3 

are  seen  flowing,  typifying  the  four  Gospels ;  or  sometimes 
these  are  baptismal  crosses,  where  the  forth-springing  waters 
of  baptism  are  overshadowed  by  the  holy  dove.  "  On  one  side 
stand  the  lambs  of  the  Christian  congregation,  while  on  the 
other  is  the  stag,  an  emblem  of  the  outer  Gentile  world  desir- 
ing baptism."  The  Agnus  Dei,  or  Lamb  of  God,  was  also  a 
favorite  design  of  this  period — sometimes  seen  upon  the  altar, 
or  standing  in  the  centre  of  twelve  sheep,  who  are  intended 
for  the  Twelve  Apostles.  The  nativity,  the  adoration  of  the 
Magi,  and  the  miracles  of  Christ  —  especially  the  raising  of 
Lazarus — are  repeatedly  delineated.  Lord  Lindsay  forcibly 
remarks  :  "  Not  a  thought  of  bitterness  or  revenge  expressed 
itself  in  sculpture  or  painting  during  three  centuries ;  not  a 
single  instance  has  been  recorded  of  the  tortures  or  martyr- 
doms which  have  furnished  such  endless  food  for  the  pencil 
in  later  ages.  Even  the  sufferings  of  Christ  are  alluded  to 
merely -by  the  cross  borne  lightly  in  his  hand  as  a  sceptre  of 
power  rather  than  a  rod  of  affliction  :  the  agony,  the  crown 
of  thorns,  the  nails,  the  spear,  seem  all  forgotten  in  the  full- 
ness of  joy  brought  by  his  resurrection.  This  is  the  theme, 
Christ's*  resurrection,  and  that  of  the  Church  in  his  person, 
on  which,  in  their  peculiar  language,  the  artists  of  the  Cata- 
combs seem  never  weary  of  expatiating."  It  is  one  of  the 
privileges  of  our  own  day  to  be  able  to  trace,  by  means 
of  photographs,  taken  by  magnesium-light  from  these  very 
walls,  the  records  of  primitive  centuries,  and  thus  see  for 
ourselves  the  Catacomb  interiors,  with  their  sarcophagi  and 
frescoes.  The  Vatican  and  Lateran  Museums  at  Rome 
also  contain  many  relics  brought  thither  from  their  original 
places. 


I4  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

It  will  be  interesting  in  this  connection  to  notice  the  por- 
traits of  Christ  and  the  Virgin  Mary  which  have  been  handed 
down  to  us  by  tradition.  The  earliest  pictures  purporting  to 
be  portraits  of  our  Lord  were  discovered  in  the  Roman  Cata- 
combs, and  are  considered  as  dating  from  the  third  or  fifth 
century.  One  of  the  best  preserved  is  thus  described  by 
Liibke :  "  The  noble  oval  of  the  countenance  is  shaded  by 
long  brown  hair,  parted  in  the  middle ;  the  eyes  are  large  and 
thoughtful,  the  nose  long  and  narrow,  the  mouth  serious  and 
mild,  and  the  beard  almost  youthfully  tender.  The  left  hand 
holds  the  open  book  of  life,  and  the  right  hand  is  raised  as  if 
for  solemn  invitation  and  warning."  Such  portraits,  as  well 
as  the  profile  lately  photographed,  professing  to  be  taken 
from  one  cut  in  an  emerald  by  command  of  Tiberius  Caesar, 
and  restored  to  Pope  Innocent  VIII.  by  the  Emperor  of  the 
Turks  as  a  ransom  for  his  brother,  were  founded  upon  the 
type  set  forth  by  ancient  writers,  as  in  the  famous  letter  of 
Lentulus  to  the  Roman  Senate.  Lentulus  was  an  officer 
supposed  to  have  been  attached  to  the  person  of  Pilate,  but 
the  letter  is  really  a  forgery  of  a  later  date,  though  it  em- 
bodies the  existing  traditions  :  "  A  man  of  stately  figure, 
dignified  in  appearance,  with  a  countenance  inspiring  ven- 
eration and  which  those  who  look  upon  may  love  as  well  as 
fear.  His  hair,  rather  dark  and  glossy,  falls  down  in  curls 
below  his  shoulders,  and  is  parted  in  the  middle,  after  the 
manner  of  the  Nazarenes.  The  forehead  is  smooth  and  re- 
markably serene ;  the  face  without  line  or  spot,  and  agree- 
ably ruddy.  The  nose  and  mouth  are  faultless ;  the  beard 
of  the  color  of  the  hair,  not  long,  but  divided  ;  the  eyes 
bright  and  of  a  varied  color."  Another  version  of  the  letter 


RISE   OF  CHRISTIAN  ART.  le 

adds  that  "  his  hair  was  the  color  of  the  hazel-nut ;  the  eyes 
grayish-blue,  and  full  of  light." 

A  curious  early  legend  relates  how  "Abgarus,  King  of 
Edessa,  lay  grievously  sick,  and  sent  a  messenger  to  the 
Saviour,  enjoining  him  to  bring  back  either  Christ  or  his 
portrait.  The  messenger,  who  arrived  while  Jesus  was 
preaching,  endeavored  to  sketch  his  features,  but  the  divine 
light  that  streamed  from  them  rendered  it  impossible ;  where- 
upon Christ,  taking  a  piece  of  linen,  wiped  his  face  with  it, 
and  handed  it  to  him  with  the  impression  of  his  countenance 
upon  it.  This  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Emperor  of 
Constantinople,  and  was  said  to  have  been  afterward 
brought  to  Italy,  where  its  true  possession  is  claimed  in 
various  localities.  A  copy  called  the  Nazaraeum  is  pre- 
served in  the  Latin  convent  at  Nazareth." 

An  equally  miraculous  origin  is  invented  for  the  great 
portrait  held  authentic  by  the  Romish  Church,  called  the 
"Archiro  tope  ton,"  or  the  "picture  made  without  hands." 
It  is  inclosed  in  a  silver  tabernacle,  in  the  chapel  of  the 
Sancta  Sanctorum,  where  it  was  placed  A.  D.  752.  Hare 
repeats  the  legend  :  "  The  apostles  and  the  Madonna, 
meeting  after  the  Ascension,  resolved  to  order  a  portrait 
of  the  Crucified,  for  satisfying  the  desire  of  the  faithful, 
and  commissioned  St.  Luke  to  execute  the  task.  After 
three  days'  fasting  and  prayer  such  a  portrait  was  drawn 
in  outline  by  that  artist,  but,  before  he  had  begun  to  col- 
or, the  tints  were  found  to  have  been  filled  in  by  invisible 
hands." 

Among  other  legendary  portraits  is  a  so-called  miniature 
of  our  Saviour,  still  shown  at  Easter  among  the  relics  of  the 


t<5  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

church  of  St.  Prassede,  Rome,  said  to  have  been  given  by 
St.  Peter  to  the  daughters  of  Pudens. 

Another  legend,  having  its  source  in  the  middle  ages,  is 
the  handkerchief  or  veil  of  St.  Veronica,  upon  which  the  feat- 
ures of  Christ  were  imprinted.  The  veil  is  exhibited  at 
Rome,  but  a  wonderfully  fine  picture,  painted  from  the  tra- 
dition, and  crowned  with  thorns,  is  ascribed  to  Correggio,  in 
the  Museum  of  Berlin. 

The  Council  of  Ephesus  in  431  defined  the  manner  in 
which  the  Virgin  Mary  was  to  be  represented  by  art ;  and 
the  ecclesiastical  historian  Nicephorus  thus  gives  the  tradi- 
tion of  her  personal  appearance :  "  She  was  of  middle  stature, 
though  some  assert  her  to  have  been  somewhat  taller.  She 
had  a  pale  tint,  light  hair,  piercing  eyes,  with  yellowish  olive- 
colored  pupils.  Her  brows  were  arched  and  modestly  black ; 
her  nose  moderately  long,  her  lips  fresh,  and  full  of  amiability 
when  speaking.  Her  face  not  round  or  pointed,  but  oval ; 
hands  and  fingers  fairly  long.  She  spoke  little,  but  she  spoke 
freely  and  affably.  She  was  not  troubled  in  her  speech,  but 
grave,  courteous,  tranquil.  Her  dress  was  without  ornament, 
and  in  her  deportment  was  nothing  lax  or  feeble." 

In  the  Catacombs  of  Santa  Priscilla  is  a  very  ancient 
seated  figure  of  the  Virgin,  "  her  head  partially  covered  with 
a  short,  light  veil,  and  with  the  Holy  Child  in  her  arms. 
Opposite  her  stands  a  man  clothed  in  .the  pallium,  holding  a 
volume  in  one  hand,  and,  with  the  other,  pointing  to  a  star 
which  appears  above  and  between  the  figures." 

Many  pictures  of  the  Madonna  which  are  shown  to  trav- 
elers are  ascribed  to  St.  Luke.  Indeed,  in  the  church  of 
Santa  Maria,  in  Via  Lata,  on  the  Corso,  Rome,  visitors  are  led 


MADONNA  OF  ST.  LUKE. 


p.  17. 


RISE   OF  CHRISTIAN  ART.  iy 

to  a  little  chamber,  which,  they  are  told,  is  the  identical  studio 
where  the  apostle  painted  with  his  own  hand  her  likeness ; 
and  there  is  a  German  "  Kunst-Lexicon  "  in  which  the  biog- 
raphy of  St.  Luke  is  given  as  the  first  Christian  artist.  Most 
of  these  so-called  portraits  are,  however,  considered  to  have 
been  executed  by  a  monk  named  Luca,  who  flourished  about 
the  eleventh  century,  when  it  became  the  fashion  to  paint  the 
Virgin's  complexion  of  the  deepest  brown  or  even  black,  in 
allusion  to  the  passage  in  Canticles :  "I  am  black,  but 
comely,  O  ye  daughters  of  Jerusalem !  "  It  is  these  black 
Virgin  pictures  which  always  gain  the  reputation  of  working 
miracles. 

Ancient  types  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  existed  in  the 
time  of  the  Emperor  Constantine.  St.  Peter  is  a  robust  old 
man,  with  a  broad  forehead  and  rather  coarse  features,  an 
open,  undaunted  countenance,  short  gray  hair,  and  short  thick 
beard,  curled  and  of  a  silvery  white.  "  The  priestly  tonsure 
is  said  to  have  originated  in  the  shaving  of  his  head  by  the 
Gentiles,  in  order  to  bring  him  into  derision.  The  keys  in 
his  hand  appear  as  his  peculiar  attribute  about  the  eighth 
century.  He  usually  carries  two  keys,  one  of  gold  and  one 
of  silver — to  absolve  and  to  bind." 

The  portrait  or  image  of  St.  Paul  was  known,  according 
to  St.  Augustine,  in  the  second  century.  Chrysostom  speaks 
of  himself  as  owning  such  a  portrait,  but  gives  no  description 
of  it.  But  tradition  endows  him  with  "  a  small  and  meagre 
stature,  aquiline  nose,  high  forehead,  and  sparkling  eyes." 
He  wears  a  white  mantle  over  a  blue  tunic.  His  attribute  is 
a  sword,  and  he  commonly  carries  a  book  or  roll,  in  allusion 
to  the  Epistles. 


X8  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

With  the  accession  of  Constantine  and  the  triumph  of 
Christianity,  art  assumed  a  grandeur  more  proportionate  to 
the  grandeur  of  the  faith.  The  Church  emerged  from  the 
Catacombs,  and  magnificent  basilicas  were  built,  requiring  a 
corresponding  style  of  decoration.  Fortunately  for  us,  most 
of  these  decorations  were  in  mosaic,  and  have  thus  often  sur- 
vived ruin  and  decay.  The  materials  employed  for  this  work 
were  not  merely  bits  of  marbles,  but  also  small  cubes  of  stone 
and  vitrified  substances,  such  as  may  be  examined  to-day  in 
the  Pope's  mosaic  manufactory  at  Rome,  where  pictures  are 
still  extensively  prepared.  Some  idea  of  the  patience  re- 
quired may  be  gained  from  the  statement  that  ten  men 
labored  for  nine  years  on  the  mosaic  copy  of  Raphael's  Trans- 
figuration, now  to  be  seen  in  St.  Peter's.  The  earliest,  though 
much-damaged,  mosaic  remains  which  have  come  down  to  us 
date  from  the  fourth  century,  and  are  discoverable  on  the 
vaulted  roof  of  Santa  Constanza,  Rome,  erected  as  the  funeral 
chapel  of  the  daughter  of  Constantine.  They  represent  Christ 
and  the  apostles,  while  the  ornaments  of  the  arches  are  vine- 
tendrils  with  little  genii  and  symbolic  signs,  on  a  white 
ground. 

But  it  is  in  the  churches  of  Ravenna  that  we  see  the  most 
ancient  yet  satisfactory  specimens  of  the  art.  The  baptistery 
of  that  city  is  peculiarly  remarkable.  Baptisteries  are  a 
special  feature  in  Italian  ecclesiastical  architecture.  They 
are  circular  or  polygonal  buildings,  placed  beside  the  cathe- 
drals, and  surmounted  by  cupolas  whose  vaulting  is  richly 
adorned  with  appropriate  subjects.  In  the  Ravenna  bap- 
tistery is  a  singular  representation  of  the  baptism  of  our  Lord, 
executed  in  the  fifth  century.  Christ  is  standing  in  the  water, 


RISE   OF  CHRISTIAN  ART.  !9 

with  the  lower  part  of  his  figure  visible  through  the  waves, 
"  while  the  river  Jordan,  under  the  form  of  a  river-god,  rises 
on  the  left  in  the  act  of  presenting  a  cloth."  Below  the  cen- 
tral figure  are  twelve  colossal  apostles  on  a  blue  background. 
The  mosaics  of  SS.  Nazaro  e  Celso,  also  at  Ravenna,  are  ex- 
tremely interesting ;  so  are  those  of  San  Vitale,  about  A.  D. 
547,  and  of  San  Apollinare  Nuovo. 

In  the  new  church  of  St.  Paul  without  the  walls,  at  Rome, 
are  preserved  some  precious  mosaics  of  the  fifth  century, 
rescued  from  the  burning  of  the  old  basilica,  portraying 
Christ  adored  by  the  twenty-four  elders  and  four  beasts  of 
the  Apocalypse.  Mosaics  of  the  same  century,  though  con- 
siderably restored,  may  be  studied  at  Santa  Maria  Maggiore. 
Over  the  arch  of  the  tribune  in  the  Lateran  is  a  head  of  the 
Saviour,  surrounded  by  seraphim.  "  Below  is  an  ornamented 
cross,  above  which  hovers  a  dove,  from  whose  beak,  running 
down  the  cross,  flow  the  streams  which  supply  the  four 
rivers  of  Paradise.  Harts  and  sheep  flock  to  drink  of  the 
waters  of  life.  In  the  distance  is  the  New  Jerusalem,  within 
which  the  Phoenix,  the  bird  of  Eternity,  is  seated  upon  the 
Tree  of  Life,  guarded  by  an  angel  with  a  two-edged  sword. 
Beside  the  cross  stand  the  Virgin  and  saints.  All  these  per- 
sons are  represented  as  walking  in  a  flowery  paradise,  in 
which  the  souls  of  the  blessed  are  sporting,  and  in  front  of 
which  flows  the  Jordan." 

But  the  finest  mosaics  of  ancient  Christian  Rome  may  be 
inspected  in  the  old  church  of  SS.  Cosmo  e  Damiano,  near 
the  palace  of  the  Caesars.  There  is  the  figure  of  Christ  which 
has  been  called  one  of  the  grandest  conceptions  of  primitive 
ages.  He  is  coming  in  the  clouds  of  sunset.  "  Countenance, 


20  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

attitude,  and  drapery,  combine  to  give  him  an  expression  of 
quiet  majesty  which  for  many  centuries  after  is  not  found 
again  in  equal  beauty  and  freedom." 

Most  of  these  mosaics  are  laid  upon  a  blue  ground.  The 
transition  to  a  gold  ground  gradually  leads  us  to  a  change  of 
style  which  marks  what  is  termed  the  Byzantine  period. 


BYZANTINE  AND  MINIATURE  PAINTING.  2J 


CHAPTER  III. 

BYZANTINE   AND   MINIATURE    PAINTING. 

AFTER  the  establishment  of  the  Byzantine  Empire  by 
Constantine,  with  Constantinople  as  its  capital,  a  school  of 
painting  began  to  rise,  destined  to  supersede  for  a  time  all 
Roman  art,  which  was  apparently  falling  into  premature  de- 
cay. It  was  a  school  which  flourished  from  the  fifth  to  the 
thirteenth  century,  and  was  exclusively  under  the  influence 
of  the  early  priests  and  monks,  many  of  whom  were  them- 
selves artists.  Its  works  display  a  singular  contrast  of  intense 
and  often  extravagant  symbolism  with  the  stiffest  and  most 
conventional  execution.  Ecclesiastical  art  had  now  rooted 
itself  as  a  power  in  the  Church ;  but  it  was  a  power  not  with- 
out opposition.  The  decoration  of  churches  and  the  growing 
splendor  of  Christian  services  had  originated  the  charge  of 
idol-worship,  and  roused  the  zealous  anger  of  iconoclasts. 
One  of  the  emperors  even  conceived  the  idea  of  entirely 
abolishing  both  pictures  and  statues ;  and  the  fierce  conflict 
of  a  hundred  years  resulted  in  the  triumph  of  painting,  but 
the  suppression  of  sculpture.  It  was  regarded  as  a  matter 
quite  important  enough  for  the  legislation  of  general  coun- 
cils ;  and  these  councils  considered  not  only  whether  sacred 
subjects  should  be  represented  at  all,  but  also  prescribed,  in 
many  instances,  the  mode  of  their  representation.  The  Coun- 


22  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING, 

cil  of  Constantinople,  held  in  692,  decided  that  the  lamb, 
formerly  used  as  the  symbol  of  our  Lord,  should  give  place 
to  the  humanity  of  Christ ;  and  from  the  time  of  this  decision 
we  may  date  the  pictures  of  the  crucifixion  which  soon 
became  so  universal.  At  first  they  portrayed  a  fully-clothed 
and  generally  youthful  figure,  standing,  with  open  eyes  and 
calm  features,  erect  upon  the  cross ;  but  very  soon  followed 
the  drooping  head,  contorted  muscles,  and  agonized  face, 
where  all  traces  of  the  divine  are  painfully  absent.  This 
delineation  of  a  suffering  Saviour,  "with  no  beauty  that  we 
should  desire  him,"  suggested  the  ideal  for  suffering  and 
ascetic  saints.  Spirituality  was  expressed  by  meagreness  and 
meanness  of  form,  and  gloom  or  severity  of  countenance. 
Madonnas  grew  "black"  and  most  uncomely;  flesh-tints 
darkened  into  deep  brown,  or  a  hideous  olive-green ;  tall, 
narrow  figures  stiffened  into  rigidity;  and  eyes  looked  out 
from  under  frowning  brows  with  a  spectral  stare.  Dra- 
peries, on  the  other  hand,  were  voluminous  and  gorgeous. 
These  morose  martyrs  shine  in  rich  vestments  of  cloth  of 
gold.  Wealth  of  ornament  and  jeweled  embroidery  are 
lavished  upon  the  folds  of  their  garments.  Indeed,  the  whole 
Byzantine  school  is  characterized  by  a  sort  of  barbaric  splen- 
dor, whose  costly  accessories  were  intended  to  dazzle  the 
beholder,  and  conceal  artistic  ignorance.  Its  best  remains 
are  its  early  mosaics,  all  usually  done  on  a  gold  ground,  the 
most  interesting  of  which  are  those  of  San  Apollinare  in  Classe, 
at  Ravenna,  and  of  St.  Mark's,  Venice.  Those  of  St.  Mark's 
are  peculiarly  worthy  of  study,  because  the  period  of  their 
execution  extends  from  the  tenth  century  down  to  the  time 
of  Titian,  and  necessarily  embraces  a  variety  of  styles,  and  a 


BYZANTINE  AND  MINIATURE  PAINTING. 


23 


wide  range  of  subjects.  "Here  we  find  that  remarkable  As- 
cension where  the  Saviour  is  represented  mounting  over  the 
riven  gates  of  Hades,  with  the  banner  of  victory  in  one  hand, 
and  drawing  Adam  upward  with  the  other,  while  on  each  side 
the  apostles  are  lifting  up  their  hands  in  prayer.  Here  we 
see  the  guests  of  the  feast  of  Pentecost,  each  two  and  two  in 
their  respective  costumes,  the  Jews  in  pointed  hats,  the  Par- 
thians  with  bow  and  arrow,  the  Arabians  almost  naked,  and 
so  on."  Curious  Byzantine  mosaics  of  the  Emperor  Justinian 
adoring  the  enthroned  Redeemer  have  been  recently  brought 
to  light  in  the  church  of  St.  Sophia  at  Constantinople. 

The  same  peculiarities  of  the  age  are  embodied  in  the 
panel  and  altar  pictures.  A  conventional  type  of  counte- 
nance belonged  to  each  character.  No  variation  of  expres- 
sion was  attempted,  but,  instead  of  this,  scrolls  were  often 
painted,  issuing  from  the  mouth  or  held  in  the  hands  of  the 
different  personages,  with  sentiments  suitable  to  the  occasion. 
Gold  grounds  were  universally  employed,  magnificent  draper- 
ies were  finished  and  polished  with  the  most  careful  minute- 
ness. The  glory,  nimbus,  and  aureole,  were  of  pagan  origin, 
and  only  adopted  by  Christians  about  the  fifth  century,  but 
came  into  more  general  use  with  the  Greek  artists.  A  glory 
round  the  whole  person  is  only  appropriate  to  Christ  and  the 
Virgin,  or  occasionally  to  ascending  saints.  The  aureole,  or 
nimbus  encircling  the  head,  is  the  common  emblem  of  sanc- 
tity. From  the  fifth  to  the  twelfth  century  it  was  shaped  like 
a  plate,  and  laid  in  solid  gold.  The  Latin  nimbus  is  a  simple 
circle,  the  Greek  nimbus  has  a  red  cross  included  within  the 
circle.  A  square  nimbus  indicates  that  the  saint  so  adorned 
was  living  when  the  work  was  painted.  Sometimes  the  glory 
3 


24  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

is  composed  entirely  of  seraphs,  with  their  six  wings  arranged 
according  to  the  vision  of  Isaiah :  "  With  twain  he  did  cover 
his  face,  with  twain  he  did  cover  his  feet,  and  with  twain  he 
did  fly."  The  color  of  seraphs  in  ancient  art  is  always  red, 
to  express  their  ardent  love ;  that  of  cherubs  is  blue,  to  sig- 
nify their  profound  knowledge. 

The  earliest  emblem  of  God  the  Father  is  a  hand,  visible 
among  clouds  at  the  top  of  the  picture.  This  is  seen  in  the 
Roman  and  Ravenna  mosaics,  especially  in  a  mosaic  of  the 
Transfiguration  in  San  Apollinare  in  Classe.  The  dove  ap- 
pears as  the  symbol  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  while  God  the  Son  is 
represented  as  standing  in  majestic  manhood,  surrounded  by 
his  apostles,  or  as  a  child  in  the  arms  of  his  enthroned  and 
resplendent  mother.  But  still  more  significant  of  this  period 
are  the  scenes  from  the  passion  of  our  Lord,  never  till  now 
delineated,  and  the  blood-streaming  crucifixes  and  harrowing 
martyrdoms,  so  suggestive  of  the  gloom  and  terror  which  in 
the  tenth  century  were  overspreading  Christendom. 

Through  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  we  have  in- 
teresting remains  of  Byzantine  altar-pieces,  sometimes  on  a 
single  panel,  sometimes  in  two  or  three  parts,  called  diptychs 
or  triptychs,  the  folding  side-pieces  being  united  by  hinges 
and  termed  "wings."  They  represented  the  same  subjects 
as  in  former  years,  treated  in  the  same  style.  Painters  fre- 
quently worked  together.  "One  designed  the  compositions, 
another  drew  the  heads,  a  third  the  draperies,  a  fourth  the 
ornaments,  a  fifth  the  inscriptions,  while  others  prepared  the 
gold  ground  and  colors  according  to  written  directions." 
Thus  Byzantine  art  degenerated  into  almost  Egyptian  formal- 
ism. "  Under  such  conditions  the  school  survives  even  to 


BYZANTINE  AND  MINIATURE  PAINTING. 


25 


this  day,  and  still  supplies  the  present  pictures  of  the  Greek 
Church.  Its  principal  workshop  is  Mount  Athos  in  Greece, 
which  is  a  province  of  monks.  As  a  school  of  painting  it  has 
continued  to  exist  in  a  uniform  and  unbroken  career  for 
thirteen  hundred  years.  It  has  nine  hundred  and  thirty-five 
churches,  chapels,  and  oratories,  nearly  all  of  which  are  paint- 
ed in  fresco,  and  crowded  with  sacred  pictures  on  wood." 

The  art  of  miniature-painting,  which  seems  to  have  been 
partially  known  among  the  Greeks,  began  to  be  applied  to 
Christian  uses  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries,  and  it  is  sin- 
gular to  observe  how  often  the  modest  parchment,  which  was 
the  material  for  this  labor,  has  been  quite  as  enduring  as 
massive  mosaics  of  imperishable  stone.  The  fineness  and 
delicacy  of  touch  here  necessary  developed  a  genius  which 
could  never  have  adapted  itself  to  vast  or  imposing  forms. 
Yet,  the  illuminator  shared  the  spirit  of  his  age,  and  advance 
and  change  of  style  are  as  perceptible  in  his  compositions 
as  in  larger  works.  The  hermits  of  the  Thebai'd  and  Syria 
first  ornamented  their  holy  books,  and  wrote  the  verses  in  let- 
ters of  gold  upon  purple-tinted  parchment ;  but  the  earliest 
manuscripts  which  we  are  now  able  to  examine  are  treasured 
in  the  library  of  the  Vatican — especially  a  roll  of  thirty  feet 
in  length,  with  miniatures  executed  in  water-colors,  descrip- 
tive of  the  life  of  Joshua.  In  the  same  library  is  a  manu- 
script "Virgil,"  probably  of  the  fifth  century,  whose  groups 
have  apparently  been  studied  after  the  antique ;  while  in  the 
Ambrosian  Library  at  Milan  is  a  similar  "  Homer,"  some  of 
whose  figures  still  shine  in  warm  and  transparent  coloring. 
Yet  the  art  does  not  seem  to  have  progressed  with  much 
rapidity  till  nearly  the  ninth  century,  when  it  was  practised 


26  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING, 

by  many  Byzantines,  either  in  their  own  compositions  or  in 
copies  made  by  them  of  older  Roman  works.  A  very  inter- 
esting psalter  of  the  ninth  century  shows  us  David  sur- 
rounded by  allegorical  figures  —  "Melody"  leaning  on  his 
shoulder,  "  Clemency  "  hovering  over  him,  and  "  Vain-glory  " 
fleeing  behind  Goliath.  Of  the  same  century  is  the  "  Chris- 
tian Topography  of  Cosmos,"  also  in  the  Vatican.  The  Vati- 
can "  Menologium,"  a  calendar  of  the  eleventh  century,  has 
four  hundred  and  thirty  splendid  miniatures,  all  on  gold 
backgrounds,  representing  animals,  temples,  houses,  furniture, 
arms,  instruments,  and  architecture.  The  "  Klimax  "  of  the 
eleventh  or  twelfth  century  exhibits,  in  miniatures  of  delicate 
finish,  an  allegory  of  the  Virtues  and  Vices,  with  the  Vices 
all  depicted  as  negroes. 

The  Royal  Library  of  Paris  is  rich  in  illuminated  manu- 
scripts. One  of  the  earliest  and  most  important  is  the 
"Commentaries  of  Gregory  of  Nazianzus  " — though  later 
works,  of  the  thirteenth  century,  are  in  better  preservation, 
and  of  almost  equal  interest  to  the  student.  From  that 
period  date  the  celebrated  "  Romances  "  so  famed  in  song 
and  story.  Whoever  inspects  the  miniature  of  the  "  Four 
Sons  of  Aymon  on  their  good  steed  Bayart  "  will  have  a  fair 
idea  of  the  manuscript  art  of  France  about  the  year  1250. 
The  family  likeness  of  the  "  Four  Sons  "  and  the  anatomy  of 
the  "  good  steed  "  will  doubtless  receive  their  full  share  of 
admiration.  But  steady  improvement  went  on  in  this  direc- 
tion through  the  fourteenth,  fifteenth,  and  sixteenth  cen- 
turies, till  the  later  "  Romaunts  "  and  the  French  "  Books  of 
Hours  "  became  the  most  beautiful  specimens  of  mediseval 
illuminations.  None  can  be  more  curious  than  a  "  Corona- 


CORONATION  OF  THE  VIRGIN  (Foucquet). 


BYZANTINE  AND  MINIATURE  PAINTING. 


27 


tion  of  the  Virgin,"  in  a  prayer-book,  by  Jehan  Foucquet, 
where  the  Three  Persons  of  the  Trinity  are  present. 

The  earliest  German  miniatures  are  to  be  found  in  the 
Royal  Library  at  Munich — some  of  the  Byzantine,  and  some 
of  the  Carlovingian  period.  Probably  the  most  ancient  is 
'a  manuscript  from  the  Convent  of  Wessobrunn,  A.  D.  814 
or  815,  illustrating,  in  rude  designs,  the  Recovery  of  the 
True  Cross,  and  containing  the  "Wessobrunn  prayer."  The 
same  library  is  well  supplied  with  native  manuscripts  of  the 
Gospels,  of  the  ninth,  tenth,  and  eleventh  centuries — mostly 
of  Gothic  stiffness.  A  Netherland  "  Evangelarium  "  of  the 
eleventh  century,  formerly  at  Treves,  has  a  primitive  paint- 
ing of  the  "  Last  Supper,"  where  Judas  is  taking  the  sop 
offered  to  him  by  Christ,  while  at  the  same  time  Satan,  in 
the  form  of  a  bird,  is  flying  into  his  mouth.  Soon  succeeded 
the  age  of  romance,  marked  by  many  manuscripts  of  the 
troubadours  or  minnesingers,  the  most  celebrated  of  which, 
dating  about  1300,  is  in  the  Library  of  Paris,  and  contains 
portraits  of  each  poet.  Still  more  interesting  are  the  works 
of  the  Flemish  painters  of  the  fifteenth  century.  The  de- 
scription of  a  manuscript,  also  in  the  Paris  Library,  by  Pol 
von  Limberg,  1410,  will  give  some  idea  of  their  abilities. 
"  The  Saviour  stands  in  a  rose-colored  mantle,  supported  by 
angels  on  pedestals,  uniting  Adam  and  Eve  under  a  rainbow. 
The  waters  of  life  well  out,  in 'front  of  the  group,  from  an 
octagonal  fountain,  swarming  with  fishes,  and  bathing  a  bank 
alive  with  quadrupeds." 

Curious  Anglo-Saxon  manuscripts  may  be  seen  at  Oxford 
and  in  London.  Some  of  these  are  of  very  early  Irish  origin, 
for  the  Irish  monks  were  particularly  fond  of  this  form  of  art, 


2g  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

and  excelled  in  calligraphy,  though  they  made  comparatively 
little  use  of  gold  or  splendor  of  coloring.  A  device  known 
as  the  "  Runic  knot  "  is  as  peculiar  to  their  penmanship  as 
is  the  familiar  "  Grecian  chain  "  to  Eastern  borders.  Rude 
and  grotesque  as  are  many  of  their  designs,  they  often  evince 
great  originality  and  native  force.  A  Saxon  "  Book  of  the 
Gospels  "  is  kept  in  the  British  Museum,  written  and  orna- 
mented by  Endfrith,  Bishop  of  Lindisfarne,  "  for  God  and  St. 
Cuthbert,"  about  the  year  700.  Some  of  the  "  Psalters  "  are 
remarkable  for  their  extraordinary  and  fantastic  Heads  of 
Christ ;  while  in  a  paraphrase  of  the  Pentateuch,  which  is  the 
chief  specimen  of  the  eleventh  century,  is  a  singular  render- 
ing of  the  "  Fall  of  the  Rebel  Angels,"  where  Lucifer,  as  the 
Prince  of  Hell,  is  encircled  by  an  almond-shaped  glory  which 
the  vermilion-colored  dragon  is  biting  with  his  tail.  In  a 
manuscript  of  the  fourteenth  century,  also  in  the  British 
Museum,  the  cross  of  Christ  at  the  crucifixion  is  planted  in 
the  grave  of  Adam;  and  from  this  tomb  rises  Adam  himself, 
holding  up  a  chalice  to  catch  the  blood  of  the  Redeemer. 

But  nowhere  do  we  examine  this  style  of  painting  with 
more  satisfaction  and  delight  than  in  the  old  monastery  of 
San  Marco,  Florence,  now  converted  into  a  National  Mu- 
seum. Psalters,  gospels,  missals,  and  books  of  prayer,  illu- 
minated principally  in  the  fifteenth  century,  by  the  brother 
of  Fra  Angelico  and  his  pupils,  with  the  most  elaborate  care 
and  the  richest  coloring,  are  constantly  laid  open  for  public 
inspection,  and  still  bear  witness  to  the  universal  love  of 
beauty  and  consecration  of  every  variety  of  talent  which  for 
several  centuries  characterized  the  progress  of  mediaeval  art, 
both  in  Italy  and  the  North. 


EARLY  ITALIAN  PAINTING, 


CHAPTER  IV. 

EARLY   ITALIAN   PAINTING. 

WHILE  the  Byzantine  school  was  nourishing  at  Constan- 
tinople, Italian  art  seemed  to  have  preserved  just  enough 
vitality  to  keep  itself  from  extinction,  and  to  transmit  from 
generation  to  generation  a  germ  of  genius  destined  to  a  later 
development.  Mosaists  still  worked  at  Rome,  though  not 
with  the  old  spirit  and  power.  In  the  church  of  St.  Agnes 
without  the  walls  are  some  remains  of  the  seventh  century, 
showing  St.  Agnes  standing  between  Popes  Honorius  and 
Symmachus.  The  figures  are  on  a  green  ground.  In  the  des- 
olate old  church  of  San  Stefano  Rotunda,  renowned  for  its 
frescoes  of  horrible  martyrdoms,  are  some  mosaic  fragments 
of  the  same  century.  Elaborate  mosaics  of  the  ninth  century 
decorate  the  church  of  St.  Prassede.  They  represent  the 
New  Jerusalem,  shaped  like  a  polygon,  with  a  gate  at  each 
angle,  guarded  by  angels.  The  hand  of  the  Father  holds  a 
crown  over  the  Saviour,  who  stands  within,  the  twelve  apos- 
tles— under  the  symbol  of  twelve  sheep — below  him,  while 
toward  the  gates  advances  a  procession  of  white-robed  mar- 
tyrs with  crowns  in  their  hands.  Ninth-century  mosaics  are 
also  found  in  the  church  of  St.  Cecilia. 

The  year  1000  was  the  epoch  at  which  all  Christendom 
expected  the  end  of  the  world ;  and  in  the  terror  and  agita- 


30  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

tion  of  that  period  art  was  neglected  and  mosaic-work  aban- 
doned, not  to  be  resumed  again,  except  by  some  Greek  artists 
in  Sicily,  till  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  century.  Meanwhile  a 
few  frescoes,  much  ruined  or  restored,  attest  the  slow  prog- 
ress of  wall-painting.  These  frescoes  are  so  called  because 
executed  upon  fresh,  damp  plaster,  in  colors  mixed  with 
water  and  some  glutinous  substances.  Some  of  them,  of  not 
later  date  than  the  eighth  or  ninth  century,  are  still  found  in 
the  lower  church  of  St.  Clement,  Rome.  Among  them  is  a 
"Crucifixion,"  with  the  Virgin  and  St.  John  standing  beside 
the  cross.  But  it  is  very  unsatisfactory  to  inspect  these  by  the 
dim  light  of  wax-tapers,  and  the  only  time  when  they  can  be 
seen  to  advantage  is  at  the  illumination  of  the  church  on  the 
festival  of  the  saint.  Curious  though  almost  obliterated  fres- 
coes are  also  traceable  in  the  little  chapel  of  San  Sylvestro, 
Rome.  One  of  them  is  a  "Crucifixion,"  "where  an  angel  is 
taking  off  the  crown  of  thorns,  and  putting  on  a  real  crown 
— an  incident  nowhere  else  introduced  in  art."  Wall  and 
ceiling  paintings,  dating  about  1200,  exist  in  the  baptistery  at 
Parma.  But  such  early  frescoes  are  generally  so  injured  and 
defaced  that  we  can  scarcely  judge  of  their  excellence.  More 
interesting  are  the  twelfth-century  Roman  mosaics  of  Santa 
Maria  in  Trastevere,  and  the  upper  church  of  St.  Clement,  as 
well  as  rich  mosaics  of  the  thirteenth  century,  still  brilliant  in 
color,  in  the  churches  of  the  Lateran  and  Santa  Maria  Mag- 
giore,  executed  by  Jacobus  Torriti.  In  those  of  Santa  Maria 
Maggiore  is  said  to  be  the  earliest  example  of  the  Coronation 
of  the  Virgin.  The  family  of  the  Cosmati  were  also  cele- 
brated mosaists  at  Rome  during  the  thirteenth  century. 
About  the  same  period  Andrea  Tafi  became  renowned  at 


EARLY  ITALIAN  PAINTING.  3! 

Florence,  and  adorned  the  baptistery  of  that  city  with  mo- 
saics of  great  merit,  which  still  shine  along  the  entire  height 
of  the  dome.  Gaddo  Gaddi,  and  other  Tuscan  artists,  worked 
in  the  same  building.  Vasari  commences  his  lives  of  the 
painters  with  a  biography  of  Tafi,  and  grows  ardent  in  his 
praise.  There  is  little,  however,  calculated  to  interest  the 
reader  of  to-day  except  his  labors  as  a  mosaist,  and  the  fact 
that  he  first  represented  angels  playing  on  the  violin,  and 
first  painted  the  outsides  of  cabinets  for  the  reception  of 
bridal  gifts. 

The  thirteenth  century  witnessed  the  great  revival  of 
Italian  art  by  Cimabue ;  yet  he  had  not  been  without  pred- 
ecessors, who  had  striven,  according  to  their  small  abilities, 
to  infuse  some  force  and  beauty  into  the  old  Byzantine  types. 
But  their  names  and  their  works  have  mostly  perished,  and 
posterity  is  well  able  to  bear  the  loss.  The  earliest  men- 
tioned are  one  Giovanni,  who  flourished  in  960,  and  Petrolino, 
who  is  reported  to  have  lived  about  the  year  noo.  The 
different  Italian  cities  each  aspired  to  produce  a  school  of 
painting,  rendering  more  or  less  honor  and  patronage  to 
their  artists,  who  began  to  form  themselves  into  societies  or 
"guilds,"  soon  to  grow  renowned  and  profitable.  Sienna 
seemed  at  first  to  give  the  highest  promise  of  excellence. 
She  encouraged  art  with  much  liberality  and  discretion,  and 
took  care  not  only  of  the  prosperity  but  of  the  respectability 
of  her  architects  and  painters,  who  were,  for  the  most  part, 
gentle,  contemplative,  and  holy.  No  immoral  person  was 
allowed  to  work  upon  her  magnificent  cathedral  then  build- 
ing. Purity  and  delicacy,  faith  and  joy,  were  the  characteris- 
tics principally  sought.  Lord  Lindsay  speaks  of  the  drooping 


32  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

bend  of  the  neck  of  their  Madonnas,  so  humble  and  so 
meek ;  of  the  caressing  intercourse  between  the  Virgin  and 
the  Child;  of  their  rich  yet  simple  coloring,  and  their  love 
for  flowers  and  birds  and  every  thing  sweet,  and  pure,  and 
fresh,  in  creation.  The  city  was  devoted  to  the  Virgin,  and 
she  was  of  course  the  painters'  chief  subject.  It  is  of  inter- 
est to  examine  the  pictures  of  this  school,  kept  in  the  Siennese 
Academy ;  but  to  our  educated  eyes  they  will  seem  stiff  and 
feeble,  and  still  bound  by  the  old  Byzantine  trammels  so 
destructive  to  beauty.  The  drawing  of  hands  and  feet  was 
also  a  hopeless  problem  to  the  artists  of  that  day. 

Guido  of  Sienna  is  the  first  well-authenticated  personage 
in  the  history  of  Italian  painting.  They  show  you,  in  the 
church  of  San  Domenico,  his  "  Enthroned  Madonna,"  heavi- 
ly draped  and  seated  under  an  arch,  with  three  angels  hover- 
ing above  her.  The  infant  Saviour,  in  robes  of  yellow  and 
gold,  is  in  her  lap,  and  holds  up  two  fingers  of  his  little  hand 
in  the  attitude  of  benediction  universally  adopted.  The 
flesh-tints  are  not  quite  so  dark  as  among  the  Greeks,  but 
they  can  scarcely  be  called  much  fairer  than  olive-green. 
At  the  bottom  of  the  panel  is  this  inscription  in  Latin, 
with  the  date  1221 : 

"I,  Guido  of  Sienna,  upon  whose  soul  may  Christ  have  mercy, 
Have  painted  this  in  pleasant  days !  " 

In  the  early  school  of  Pisa,  Nicolo  Pisano  produced  as 
wonderful  a  revolution  in  sculpture  as  Cimabue  and  Giotto 
in  painting.  Sculpture  was  therefore  its  favorite  department, 
leaving  pictorial  art  less  practised ;  but  reliable  mention  is 
made  of  one  Giunta  Pisano,  who  is  said  to  have  painted  about 


EARLY  ITALIAN  PAINTING.  33 

1230,  in  the  church  of  St.  Francis  at  Assisi.  Some  half- 
obliterated  frescoes  are  there  ascribed  to  him,  especially  a 
"  Crucifixion,"  in  which  a  dead  Christ,  of  a  repulsive  Byzantine 
type,  rises  above  a  crowd  of  grave  and  motionless  figures* 
arranged  as  in  ancient  congregations — the  men  on  one  side, 
the  women  on  the  other.  At  the  foot  of  the  cross  is  a  much- 
damaged  figure  of  St.  Francis.  He  executed  at  the  same 
time  a  small,  full-length,  mild-faced  figure  of  St.  Francis, 
which  is  now  preserved  in  the  sacristy  of  the  church,  and 
has  almost  the  authenticity  of  a  portrait.  A  little  panel  pict- 
ure, also  ascribed  to  Giunta,  very  old,  very  black,  and  very 
ugly,  is  in  the  Dresden  Gallery.  It  will  not  excite  a  burning 
desire  in  the  beholder  for  a  further  research  into  his  works. 

A  family  of  artists,  called  the  Berlinghieri,  dwelt  at  Lucca 
in  the  commencement  of  the  thirteenth  century,  but  most  of 
the  primitive  Lucca  paintings  are  only  crucifixes,  after  the 
most  disagreeable  models.  St.  Francis  was  also  an  occa- 
sional subject  for  their  brush;  but  the  peculiar  devotee  of 
this  saint  was  Margaritone  of  Arezzo,  born  in  1236.  He  was, 
moreover,  an  architect  and  sculptor,  and  his  native  city 
Arezzo  still  preserves  some  efforts  of  his  skill,  all  in  Byzan- 
tine taste  and  style.  He  has  an  altar-piece  in  the  English 
Gallery,  representing  "  the  Virgin  and  Child  in  an  elliptical 
glory,  supported  by  angels,  with  the  symbols  of  the  evan- 
gelists ;  and,  on  the  sides,  scenes  from  the  lives  of  St.  John, 
St.  Benedict,  St.  Catharine,  and  St.  Margaret."  The  com- 
plexions are  dusky  bronze,  with  vermilion  spotted  cheeks. 
According  to  Vasari,  he  died  aged  seventy-seven. 

Into  this  faint  twilight  dawning  of  a  day  of  beauty  and 
progress  was  born,  in  1240,  Giovanni  Cimabue.  He  was  a 


34  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

native  of  Florence,  and  of  a  proud  and  noble  family.  His 
own  character  is  reported  to  have  been  haughty  and  disdain- 
ful, yet  lofty  in  aim  and  patient  in  labor.  He  could  not 
brook  a  fault  in  his  pictures,  but  aspired  far  beyond  the  at- 
tainments of  his  age,  and  achieved  a  fame  which,  according 
to  his  enthusiastic  biographer  Vasari,  entitles  him  to  be  called 
the  "father  of  modern  painting."  This  reputation  may  seem 
to  rest  upon  slight  foundations ;  but  we  must  remember  that 
what  now  appears  to  us  painful  feebleness  and  formalism  in 
art,  and  crudeness  in  color,  was  then  a  daring  advance  upon 
all  received  standards.  Until  the  time  of  Cimabue,  painting 
had  never  been  considered  as  in  any  real  sense  an  imitation 
of  Nature.  It  is  true  that  under  his  hands  it  did  not  proceed 
very  far  in  this  direction,  but  he  at  least  perceived  the  ideal, 
though  it  was  reserved  for  his  pupil  Giotto  to  illustrate,  both 
by  precept  and  example,  the  new  theory  of  art.  Cimabue 
changed  the  Byzantine  system  of  color,  and  introduced  an- 
other method  of  flesh-tints,  giving  warm  shadows,  and  a  light 
instead  of  a  dark  undertone.  He  also  emancipated  draperies 
from  their  Greek  rigidity,  and  caused  them,  though  still  vo- 
luminous, to  fall  in  more  natural  and  tasteful  folds.  He 
avoided  the  round  eyes  of  his  predecessors,  and  gave  a  faint 
touch  of  sweetness  and  grandeur  to  the  severe  and  repulsive 
faces  which  had  formerly  disfigured  both  Virgin  and  saints. 
His  knowledge  of  perspective  was  of  course  small,  of  anat- 
omy still  less,  and  kindness  forbids  us  to  allude  to  his 
attempted  hands  and  feet ;  but  the  soul  of  the  picture  began 
to  struggle  through,  and  art  was  no  longer  mechanical. 
Whether  he  had  been  instructed  by  Greek  masters  is  a  dis- 
puted question,  but  he  must  at  least  have  studied  their  paint- 


EARLY  ITALIAN  PAINTING.  35 

ings  and  felt  their  deficiencies.  His  earliest  work  was  a  "  St. 
Cecilia  " — no  inspired  musician,  but  a  heavily-draped  matron, 
seated  on  a  throne,  with  a  book  of  the  gospels  in  one  hand 
and  a  palm-branch  in  the  other.  In  the  Florence  Academy 
is  preserved  a  large  "  Madonna  and  Child,"  originally  intend- 
ed for  the  monks  of  Vallambrosa,  with  three  adoring  angels 
on  each  side,  on  a  gold  ground.  Several  saintly  heads  at  the 
bottom  are  the  finest  part  of  the  picture;  yet  when  we  con- 
trast it  with  a  Byzantine  "  Magdalen ''  which  hangs  close  by 
we  can  form  a  better  opinion  of  Cimabue's  real  progress .  es- 
pecially if  we  subjoin  a  description  of  this  Byzantine  penitent, 
who  is  spoken  of  by  a  distinguished  spectator  as  possessing 
"  wooden  hands,  projecting  ears,  and  the  figure  and  pose  of  a 
mummy."  Two  red  daubs  ornament  her  cheeks,  and  her 
appalling  length  is  enveloped  in  a  dark  reddish-brown  gar- 
ment. She  stares  fixedly  before  her,  and  holds  the  conven- 
tional scroll. 

When  put  into  competition  with  such  representations  as 
these,  we  begin  to  comprehend  the  rapturous  admiration 
which  was  universally  accorded  to  the  colossal  Madonna 
afterward  painted  by  Cimabue  for  the  church  of  Santa  Maria 
Novella.  This  was  the  largest  altar-piece  Florence  had  ever 
seen.  It  was  carried  to  its  destined  abode  by  a  festive  pro- 
cession with  music  and  banners,  and  the  artist  realized  for 
the  moment  all  his  dreams  of  fame.  It  still  remains  in  the 
Rucellai  Chapel  of  the  venerable  church.  "  The  Virgin,  in  a 
red  tunic  and  blue  mantle,  with  her  feet  resting  on  an  open- 
worked  stool,  is  sitting  on  a  chair  hung  with  white  drapery, 
flowered  in  gold  and  blue,  and  carried  by  six  angels,  kneeling 
in  threes  above  each  other.  A  delicately-engraved  nimbus 


36  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

surrounds  her  head  and  that  of  the  infant  Saviour  on  her  lap, 
dressed  in  a  white  tunic  and  purple  mantle  shot  with  gold." 
But  years  have  sadly  dimmed  its  splendors,  and  I  doubt  if 
many  travelers  of  the  present  day  would  have  joined  the 
procession. 

Another  "  Madonna  and  Child  "  from  the  hand  of  Cima- 
bue  is  at  present  in  the  Louvre,  but  has  been  much  injured 
and  restored.  A  "  Crucifixion  "  ascribed  to  him  is  in  the 
Florentine  church  of  Santa  Croce.  But  his  most  extensive 
works  are  the  frescoes,  now  falling  into  decay,  in  the  church 
of  St.  Francis  at  Assisi.  The  best  of  these  are  on  the  roof 
of  the  nave  of  the  upper  building,  and  on  the  walls  of  the 
nave  in  a  line  with  the  windows.  The  subjects  on  the  left- 
hand  side  are  taken  from  the  Old  Testament ;  on  the  right 
from  the  life  of  Christ,  especially  the  scenes  of  the  Betrayal, 
and  the  Deposition  from  the  Cross. 

Before  proceeding  further  it  will  be  necessary  to  give  a 
somewhat  full  description  of  this  remarkable  church,  in  re- 
gard to  which  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  observe  that  its  paint- 
ings "  comprise  and  explain  the  history  of  the  revival  of 
Italian  art,"  and  that  this  edifice  is  undoubtedly  "  the  most 
important  monument  of  the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century." 
To  understand  the  reason  of  its  erection  we  must  refer  to  the 
legend  of  the  saint  it  was  intended  to  commemorate.  St. 
Francis,  often  termed  the  Seraphic,  was  the  founder  of  the 
Franciscan  order  of  friars.  He  was  a  native  of  Assisi,  and 
was  baptized  Giovanni,  but  called  Francisco,  the  Frenchman, 
from  his  early  knowledge  of  that  language.  He  was  always 
noted  for  a  sweet  and  benevolent  disposition,  but  his  youth 
was  given  over  to  the  pursuit  of  pleasure,  till  a  long  illners, 


EARLY  ITALIAN  PAINTING. 


37 


at  the  age  of  about  twenty-five,  produced  more  serious 
thoughts,  and  the  determination  to  devote  himself  wholly  to 
religion.  His  father  bitterly  opposed  this  resolution,  and  be- 
sought a  friendly  bishop  to  dissuade  his  son  from  such  a 
course.  But  the  bishop  was  moved  with  joy  and  reverence 
at  Francis's  holy  fervor,  gave  him  a  beggar's  cloak,  and  en- 
couraged him  in  his  vocation.  He  first  assumed  the  charge 
of  a  lepers'  hospital,  cared  for  the  poor  and  sick,  and  lived  in 
ragged  penitence,  prayer,  and  fasting,  supporting  himself 
only  by  begging  alms.  Instead  of  a  girdle  he  wore  a  rope 
about  his  waist,  from  which  peculiarity  his  followers  are 
sometimes  termed  Cordeliers.  The  three  vows  of  poverty, 
chastity,  and  obedience,  he  held  to  be  indispensable  to  all 
Christian  perfection.  Crowds  were  converted  by  his  preach- 
ing, and  marvelous  stories  were  told  of  his  penances,  his  gen- 
tleness, his  tenderness,  and  piety.  The  birds  were  friends 
with  him,  and  the  beasts  of  the  field  followed  him  like  chil- 
dren. "  Hares  and  pheasants  sought  refuge  in  the  folds  of 
his  robe,  and  his  heart  overflowed  with  love  toward  all  living 
creatures."  A  pet  lamb  was  his  frequent  companion.  He 
went  upon  missions  to  heathen  countries,  was  rapt  in  trances 
and  ecstasies ;  and  finally,  in  a  cave  upon  Mount  Alverna, 
he  saw  the  vision  of  a  seraph,  with  six  shining  wings,  and  re- 
ceived in  his  hands,  and  feet,  and  side,  the  marks  of  the 
wounds  of  our  Saviour.  This  subject  has  been  painted 
under  the  title  of  "  St.  Francis  receiving  the  Stigmata." 
Two  years  after  his  death  he  was  canonized,  and  became  the 
most  popular  saint  of  Italy.  Over  his  tomb  a  church  was 
dedicated  in  his  honor  early  in  the  thirteenth  century. 

The  architecture  of  this  church  was  Gothic,  and  its  ar- 


3 8  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

rangement  peculiar ;  "  two  churches  of  almost  equal  extent 
being  built,  one  over  the  other :  "  the  lower  to  cover  the 
sepulchre  of  St.  Francis,  the  upper  intended  for  the  religious 
uses  of  the  monastery.  "  The  great  veneration  in  which  this 
place  was  held  was  evinced  by  the  quantity  of  paintings  with 
which  the  walls  were  covered  in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth 
centuries.  First,  Grecian  masters,  and  after  them,  it  is  sup- 
posed, Giunta  Pisano,  executed  considerable  paintings,  of 
which  little,  however,  is  now  recognizable."  Cimabue  and 
his  pupils  continued  the  work,  and  afterward  Giotto,  as  we 
shall  see,  left  in  these  remains  some  of  his  most  characteristic 
frescoes. 

The  present  condition  of  the  church  of  St.  Francis  at 
Assisi  is  thus  strikingly  described  by  Taine,  in  his  volume 
upon  Italy  : 

"  Over  the  body  of  the  saint,  which  the  people  regard  as 
ever  living  and  absorbed  in  prayer  at  the  bottom  of  an  inac- 
cessible cave,  the  edifice  has  arisen  and  gloriously  flowered, 
like  an  architectural  shrine.  Here  is  a  crypt,  dark  as  a 
sepulchre,  into  which  the  visitors  descend  with  torches ;  pil- 
grims keep  close  to  the  dripping  walls,  and  grope  along  in 
order  to  reach  the  grating.  Here  is  the  tomb,  in  a  pale,  dim 
light,  similar  to  that  of  limbo.  A  few  brass  lamps,  almost 
without  light,  burn  here  eternally,  like  stars  lost  in  mournful 
obscurity.  The  ascending  smoke  clings  to  the  arches,  and 
the  heavy  odor  of  the  tapers  mingles  with  that  of  the  cave. 
The  guide  trims  his  torch,  and  the  sudden  flash  in  this  hor- 
rible darkness,  above  the  bones  of  a  corpse,  is  like  one  of 
Dante's  visions. 

"  But  that  which  cannot  be  represented  by  words  is  the 


EARLY  ITALIAN  PAINTING.  39 

middle  church,  a  long,  low  spiracle,  supported  by  small, 
round  arches  curving  in  the  half-shadow,  and  whose  volun- 
tary depression  makes  one  instinctively  bend  his  knees.  A 
coating  of  sombre  blue  and  of  reddish  bands,  starred  with 
gold,  a  marvelous  embroidery  of  ornaments,  wreaths,  delicate 
'scroll-work,  leaves,  and  painted  figures,  covers  the  arches  and 
ceiling  with  its  harmonious  multitude.  On  one  hand  is  the 
choir,  surcharged  and  sown  with  sculptures ;  yonder  a  rich, 
winding  staircase,  elaborate  railings,  a  light  marble  pulpit, 
and  funereal  monuments  ;  here  and  there,  haphazard,  a  lofty 
sheaf  of  slender  columns,  a  cluster  of  stone  gems  whose 
arrangement  seems  a  fantasy,  and,  in  the  labyrinth  of  col- 
ored foliage,  a  profusion  of  ascetic  paintings,  with  their  halos 
of  faded  gold  ;  all  this  vaguely  discernible  in  a  dim,  purple 
light,  amid  dark  reflections  from  the  wainscotings. 

"  On  the  summit,  the  upper  church  shoots  up  as  brilliant, 
as  aerial,  as  triumphant,  as  this  is  low  and  grave.  It  tapers 
its  columns,  narrows  its  ogives,  refines  its  arches,  mounts 
upward  and  upward,  illuminated  by  the  full  day  of  its.  lofty 
windows,  by  the  radiance  of  its  rosaces,  by  the  stained  glass 
and  golden  threads  of  stars,  which  flash  through  the  arches 
and  vaults  that  confine  the  beatified  beings  and  sacred  per- 
sonages with  which  it  is  painted  from  pavement  to  ceiling. 
Time,  undoubtedly,  has  undermined  them ;  several  have 
fallen,  and  the  azure  that  covers  them  is  tarnished ;  but  the 
mind  immediately  revives  what  is  lost  to  the  eye,  and  it  again 
beholds  the  angelic  pomp  such  as  it  first  burst  forth  six  hun- 
dred years  ago." 

Contemporary  with  Cimabue,  in  the  then  prosperous  city 
of  Sienna,  Duccio,  called  Duccio  di  Buoninsegna,  was  slowly 


40  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

beginning  to  learn  that  the  teachings  of  Nature  are  a  safer 
guide  in  art  than  the  traditions  of  the  East.  The  time  for 
the  aesthetic  freedom  of  Italy  was  fully  come,  and  the  mas- 
ter minds  in  all  provinces  were  preparing  for  the  change. 
Duccio  was  independent  of  Cimabue,  as  Cimabue  of  Duccio, 
but  the  same  spirit  was  stirring  in  each.  We  have  no  posi- 
tive record  of  his  birth,  though  a  picture  marked  1278  is 
ascribed  to  him  in  the  Museum  of  Nancy,  as  is  also  a  Virgin 
and  Child  of  somewhat  later  date,  now  in  the  London  Gal- 
lery. But  his  greatest  work,  and  one  most  instructive  to  his 
countrymen,  was  the  grand  altar-piece,  fourteen  feet  long  and 
seven  high,  which  he  completed  for  the  Sienna  Cathedral. 
This  was  painted  on  the  front  with  a  Madonna  and  Child 
encompassed  by  saints,  and  on  the  back  with  twenty-eight 
small  scenes  from  the  passion  of  Christ,  beginning  with  the 
entry  into  Jerusalem.  It  has  since  been  sawed  in  two,  and 
the  parts  placed  at  the  ends  of  the  cathedral-transept.  Below 
the  Madonna  he  wrote :  "  Holy  Mother  of  God,  grant  peace 
to  the  people  of  Sienna,  grant  life  to  Duccio,  since  he  has  thus 
painted  thee !  "  It  was  finished  in  1310,  and  the  Siennese  were 
as  much  excited  by  it  as  the  Florentines  had  previously  been 
by  the  Virgin  of  Cimabue ;  so  that  similar  honors  were  lav- 
ished on  it,  and  a  similar  procession  bore  it  from  the  studio 
to  its  magnificent  altar.  The  little  paintings  on  the  back, 
which  the  citizens  doubtless  thought  far  inferior  to  the 
highly-ornamented  Madonna  in  front,  are  now  the  valued 
evidences  of  Duccio's  skill.  They  are  beautifully  finished, 
finely  grouped,  and  unexpectedly  natural  and  impressive. 
His  touch  may  be  less  free  and  noble  than  that  of  Cimabue, 
but  he  displays  refinement  and  elegance.  Yet  he  must,  in 


EARLY  ITALIAN  PAINTING.  4I 

turn,  give  place  to  Giotto,  whom  all  acknowledge  to  have 
been  the  first  true  "  lord  of  Painting's  field  " — an  artist,  as 
Vasari  expresses  it,  "by  the  gift  of  God." 

The  events  of  Giotto  di  Bordone's  life  have  so  often  been 
narrated  that  it  may  seem  tedious  to  repeat  them,  yet  none 
can  be  omitted  from  a  history  of  art.  He  was  born  at 
Vespignano,  not  far  from  Florence,  in  1276 ;  and  every  one 
has  heard  how,  when  he  was  a  shepherd-lad  of  ten  years  old, 
Cimabue  came  riding  through  the  valley,  and  saw  him  mak- 
ing a  drawing  of  his  sheep  with  a  piece  of  stone  upon  a 
rock.  With  quick  perception  and  sympathy,  he  recognized 
the  genius  of  the  child,  took  him  to  his  own  home,  and  edu- 
cated him  as  a  painter.  Growing  to  manhood,  Giotto  be- 
came the  friend  of  Dante,  of  Petrarch,  and  of  Boccaccio  :  his 
enthusiasm  was  roused  and  his  ambition  fired,  while  at  the 
same  time  his  abilities  were  properly  trained  and  regulated. 
He  was  appreciative,  yet  practical ;  his  nature  was  inventive, 
fertile,  and  varied  ;  "  though  born  in  a  mystic  century,  he  was 
himself  no  mystic."  He  looked  on  Nature  with  keen,  com- 
prehensive eyes,  and  boldly  aimed  to  reproduce  what  he  saw. 
With  himself,  the  result  was  originality;  with  his  critics, 
amazement  and  admiration.  They  were  filled  with  wonder 
to  perceive  that  human  passions  could  be  painted  on  pictured 
faces — that  the  melancholy  figures  should  really  look  sorrow- 
ful, or  the  happy  glad. 

Giotto's  acquirements  were  not  only  those  of  an  artist,  but 
he  was  liberally  educated  in  the  various  accomplishments  of 
the  period.  His  literary  attainments  were  great,  and  he  was 
even  himself  somewhat  of  a  poet — as  in  the  lines  which  he 
penned  upon  "  Poverty."  Of  his  powers  as  a  mosaist  we  have 


42  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

ample  proof  in  the  famous  mosaic  of  the  "  Navicella,"  much 
defaced  and  repaired,  but  yet  preserved  in  the  porch  of  St. 
Peter's,  at  Rome,  representing  the  ship  of  the  Church,  manned 
by  the  apostles,  and  tossed  upon  the  sea,  while  St.  Peter,  in 
the  foreground,  is  being  rescued  by  Christ  from  the  waves. 
As  an  architect  he  has  left  us  the  matchless  Campanile  of 
Florence  to  speak  his  praise.  Personally  he  was  genial,  witty, 
and  popular,  but  far  from  handsome.  His  eight  children 
were  so  ugly  that  Dante  commented  upon  their  appearance 
in  most  unflattering  terms.  The  poet  of  "  Paradise  "  and  the 
"  Inferno  "  had  been  himself  a  scholar  of  Cimabue,  though  the 
only  notice  we  have  of  his  progress  is  in  language  which  he 
himself  uses  when,  in  speaking  of  Beatrice,  he  says,  "  Whiles 
I  thought  of  her,  I  drew  an  angel."  But  he  always  continued 
his  regard  for  his  fellow-pupil,  and  many  of  Giotto's  most 
forcible  ideas  were  probably  due  to  his  suggestion.  Counter- 
balancing this,  we  may  remark  that  it  is  to  Giotto  we  owe  the 
finest  and  most  favorable  portrait  of  Dante,  discovered  within 
the  last  forty  years,  among  some  frescoes  which  had  been 
whitewashed  over,  in'the  chapel  of  the  Palace  of  the  Podesta, 
Florence.  It  was  much  damaged,  but  shows  us  a  youthful 
and  noble  figure,  with  a  red  hood  and  vest,  and  green  under- 
waistcoat,  bearing  in  the  right  hand  "  a  stem  with  triple  fruit, 
possibly  emblematic  of  the  three  great  poems  of  which  he  is 
the  author."  This  photographs  admirably,  and  is  quite  dif- 
ferent from  the  better-known  but  less  agreeable  likeness  on 
the  north  wall  of  the  cathedral,  which  depicts  him  standing  in 
a  robe  of  red,  with  head  crowned  with  laurel,  holding  in  his 
hand  an  open  book. 

As  a  painter,  Giotto's  chief  excellences  were  the  natural- 


EARLY  ITALIAN  PAINTING. 


43 


ness  and  life-like  expression  which  have  been  already  com- 
mended— delicate  carnation  flesh-tints,  flexible  attitudes, 
and  simple  and  graceful  draperies.  His  defects  were  igno- 
rance of  anatomy  and  perspective,  oblique  and  half-closed 
eyes,  flatness  of  form,  and  want  of  correct  method  in  fore- 
-shortening. 

The  frescoes  in  the  church  of  Assisi,  illustrative  of  the 
life  of  St.  Francis,  are  among  his  earliest  efforts.  His  scholars 
of  course  assisted  in  their  execution,  but  many  in  the  lower 
church  are  known  to  be  from  his  own  hand.  All  these  fres- 
coes are  very  interesting ;  some  are  most  curious,  and  clearly 
display  the  novelty  of  his  style.  For  instance,  in  the  painting 
of  St.  Francis  causing  water  to  flow  from  a  rock  in  answer  to 
his  prayers,  we  perceive  a  thirsty  man  stooping  to  drink — the 
first  example  of  so  common  an  incident  in  ordinary  life  being 
introduced  into  art.  Another  singular  fresco  depicts  St. 
Francis  preaching  to  the  birds.  The  good  friar  is  earnestly 
exhorting  his  feathered  congregation  who,  gathered  under 
the  shade  of  a  very  symmetrical  tree,  turn  up  their  little 
heads  and  listen  with  profound  attention ;  for  St.  Francis  ex- 
tended his  loving  spiritual  care  to  all  creation,  and,  when  he 
heard  the  songs  of  the  larks,  was  wont  to  say,  "  Our  sisters, 
the  birds,  are  praising  God ;  let  us  sing  with  them !  "•  By  far 
the  best,  however,  of  this  series  of  wall  and  ceiling  paintings 
are  the  four  compartments  of  the  vault  of  the  lower  choir, 
representing  the  espousals  of  St.  Francis  to  poverty,  chastity, 
and  obedience.  First  we  behold  the  fortress  of  Chastity 
which  the  monk  is  scaling;  in  the  second,  the  angel  of  Obe- 
dience, draped  in  black,  lays  the  yoke  upon  his  neck ;  in  the 
third  stands  Poverty  as  a  bride,  while  Francis  places  a  ring 


44  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

upon  her  finger,  and  the  Saviour  blesses  the  union ;  and  in 
the  fourth  we  see  the  apotheosis  of  the  saint  enthroned  in 
glory  and'  honored  by  angels.  Realism  blends  with  tradition 
and  poetry  in  many  trifling  details ;  as  where  "  a  dog  barks 
at  the  feet  of  Poverty,  a  child  goads  her  with  a  stick,  and  a 
boy  throws  stones  at  her." 

Pope  Boniface  VIII.,  who  was,  like  his  wealthy  successors, 
a  patron  of  rising  art,  soon  summoned  Giotto  to  Rome ;  and 
with  this  visit  is  connected  the  familiar  story  of  the  papal 
envoy  who  asked  from  the  painter  a  proof  of  his  ability. 
"Whereupon  Giotto,  who  was  very  courteous,  took  a  sheet  of 
paper,  and  a  pencil  dipped  in  red  color ;  then,  resting  his  el- 
bow on  his  side,  with  one  turn  of  his  hand  he  drew  a  circle 
so  perfect  and  exact  that  it  was  a  marv»el  to  behold.  This 
done,  he  turned  to  the  courtier,  saying,  '  There  is  your  draw- 
ing ! ' '  The  amiable  Pope  appears  to  have  been  quite  satis- 
fied with  this  effort,  and  it  is  still  perpetuated  in  the  Italian 
proverb,  "rounder  than  the  O  of  Giotto."  No  remains  of  his 
works  are  now  discoverable  in  Rome,  except  the  mosaic  of 
the  Navicella,  some  old  panels  in  the  sacristy  of  St.  Peter's, 
and  a  fragmentary  fresco  in  the  church  of  St.  John  Lateran, 
in  which  Pope  Boniface  announces  from  a  balcony  the  open- 
ing of  a  jubilee. 

Returning  to  Florence  in  1300,  he  ornamented  the  Palace 
of  the  Podesta,  or  Bargello,  with  frescoes  of  the  "  Inferno  "  and 
"  Paradisox"  in  which  occurs  the  portrait  of  Dante  mentioned 
a  few  pages  back,  as  well  as  other  contemporary  likenesses. 
The  same  room  contains  almost  obliterated  paintings  from 
the  lives  of  St.  Mary  Magdalen  and  Mary  of  Egypt.  The 
passion  for  whitewash  which  concealed  these  valuable  pict- 


CHRIST  ADORED  (Giotto). 


p.  44- 


EARLY  ITALIAN  PAINTING,  4e 

ures  was  similarly  exercised  in  the  chapels  of  Santa  Croce 
and  other  Florentine  churches,  and  artistic  treasures  long  lay 
hid  under  such  coarse  covering.  A  "  Last  Supper,"  either  by 
himself  or  his  scholars,  the  earliest  large  representation  of 
this  important  subject,  has  been  found  in  an  old  refectory 
of  Santa  Grace,  since  degraded  into  a  carpet-manufactory. 
Other  fine  frescoes  also  adorn  the  church ;  and  an  altar-piece 
of  the  "  Coronation  of  the  Virgin  "  is  particularly  to  be  ad- 
mired. In  his  pictures  of  the  Madonna,  Giotto  generally 
placed  the  angels  kneeling  before  her  throne,  singing  to  her 
or  waiting  on  her  as  her  celestial  ministrants. 

In  1305  the  artist  made  a  journey  to  Padua,  and  there 
completed  his  celebrated  frescoes  from  the  lives  of  the  Virgin 
and  the  Saviour,  in  the  Scrovigni  Chapel  of  the  church  of 
the  Arena.  These  are  full  of  expression  and  energy,  espe- 
cially a  figure  of  St.  John  about  to  throw  himself  on  the  body 
of  Christ.  Several  of  them  have  been  chromo-lithographed 
by  the  Arundel  Society.  He  also  visited  Ravenna  and  other 
parts  of  Italy,  but,  though  he  may  have  gone  to  Naples,  it 
has  been  ascertained  that  the  "Seven  Sacraments"  in  the 
church  of  the  Incoronata,  in  that  city,  formerly  ascribed  to 
him,  is  not  genuine ;  ne'ither  is  he  now  believed  to  have 
worked  in  the  Campo  Santo  of  Pisa ;  but  many  of  his  panel 
and  altar  pieces  are  collected  in  the  Florentine  galleries. 

Giotto's  crucifixes  may  be  said  to  have  marked,  in  a  minor 
way,  an  era  in  art.  All  who  have  passed  through  Southern 
Europe  must  recollect  the  innumerable  "Crucifixions," carved 
or  painted,  which  decorate  churches,  chapels,  convents,  or 
wayside  shrines.  In  the  fourteenth  century  these  were  even 
more  reverenced,  and  their  early  style  was  assuredly  not 


46  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

calculated  to  attract  the  beholder  to  the  cross.  Wounded 
and  harrowing  figures,  with  emaciated  limbs,  despairing 
countenances,  and  streaming  jets  of  blood,  were  their  best 
conceptions  of  the  Saviour  of  the  world.  But  Giotto  so  im- 
proved upon  this  ancient  type  as  to  convey  some  expression 
of  suffering  majesty,  heavenly  love,  and  resignation,  and  thus 
to  furnish  a  new  incentive  to  devotion,  which  his  successors 
were  eager  to  adopt  and  copy. 

Popular  and  beloved  in  life,  Giotto  was  no  less  honored 
in  death.  He  was  buried  in  1336  in  the  cathedral  of  Flor- 
ence, where  a  monument  was  erected  to  his  memory,  near 
the  tomb  of  Cimabue.  His  pupils  and  immediate  followers 
were  entitled  "the  Giotteschi."  None  of  them  possessed 
extraordinary  ability,  but  the  most  talented  was  Taddeo 
Gaddi  (1300-1366),  to  whom  Giotto  had  stood  godfather. 
His  principal  frescoes  are  in  the  church  of  Santa  Croce,  and 
his  panel-pictures  exist  in  Berlin,  in  London,  and  in  the 
Florentine  Academy  of  Fine  Arts.  Indeed,  some  of  the  works 
attributed  to  Giotto  were  probably  painted  by  Gaddi.  He 
was  also  an  architect,  and  continued  his  master's  labors  upon 
the  Campanile.  Like  the  rest  of  his  school,  he  had  a  pen- 
chant for  long,  slender  figures,  and  architectural  backgrounds. 

Tommaso  di  Stefano,  called  Giottino,  or  the  Little  Giotto, 
born  in  1324,  appears  to  have  been  a  melancholy  recluse,  who 
died  early  of  consumption.  He,  too,  has  pictures  in  Santa 
Croce,  Florence,  from  the  legend  of  St.  Sylvester.  His  father 
was  so  good  an  imitative  painter  that  he  was  spoken  of  as 
"//  Scimia  delta  Natura"  the  "Ape  of  Nature,"  a  term  in- 
tended to  be  highly  complimentary. 

While  Florence  was  thus  gaining  supremacy  in  the  fine 


EARLY  ITALIAN  PAINTING. 


47 


arts,  Sienna  did  not  yield  her  renown  without  a  struggle.  She 
possessed  a  rival  painter,  though  posterity  no  longer  allows 
him  to  cope  with  Giotto.  Simone  Martini,  often  called  Simone 
Memmi,  was  born  in  1283,  and  in  1324  married  the  daughter 
of  one  Memmi,  a  painter,  whose  name  has  thus  been  trans- 
-  ferred  to  him.  His  brother-in-law,  Lippo  Memmi,  was  his 
associate,  but  ranked  far  below  him  in  merit.  Simone  excelled 
in  the  old  Siennese  characteristics  of  delicacy,  purity,  and  re- 
pose. His  pictures  shine  with  the  beauty  of  holiness.  One  of 
his  large  early  frescoes  is  exhibited  in  the  hall  of  the  Public 
Palace  of  Sienna,  while  in  the  chapel  of  St.  Martin  at  Assisi  is 
a  series  of  fresco  illustrations  from  the  life  of  that  saint,  in- 
cluding the  familiar  subject  of  Martin  dividing  his  cloak  with 
a  beggar.  The  frescoes  of  the  Spanish  chapel  in  the  church 
of  Santa  Maria  Novella,  Florence,  which  were  for  many  years 
ascribed  to  Simone  Memmi  and  Taddeo  Gaddi,  are  now 
ascertained  to  be  the  work  of  but  second-rate  artists.  After 
the  removal  of  the  papal  court  to  Avignon,  Simone  was  in- 
vited thither,  but  his  labors  in  that  city  have  been  ruined  by 
time  and  decay.  There  he  resided  as  the  friend  of  Petrarch 
who  wrote  two  sonnets  in  his  praise,  and  there  he  completed 
the  portrait  of  Laura  which  has  unfortunately  perished. 
There,  too,  he  died  in  1344.  He  is  more  celebrated  for  his 
frescoes  than  his  panel-pieces,  though  an  "Annunciation"  is  to 
be  found  in  the  Uffizi,  Florence,  the  joint  work  of  himself  and 
Lippo ;  also  a  "  Madonna  and  Child,"  at  Berlin ;  and  a  "  Find- 
ing of  the  Saviour  in  the  Temple,"  in  the  Liverpool  Gallery. 
The  figures  in  this  last  production  display  much  grace  and 
gentleness,  and  are  elaborately  modeled,  but  covered  with 
most  cumbersome  drapery.  In  addition  to  his  other  talents, 


48  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS   OF  PAINTING. 

Simone  was  quite  eminent  as  a  miniaturist,  and  is  also  said 
to  have  painted  the  first  equestrian  portrait  known  in  Italian 
art.  After  his  death  the  reputation  of  the  Siennese  painters 
declined,  though  Taddeo  di  Bartolo,  who  flourished  about 
the  close  of  the  fourteenth  century,  is  in  some  degree  worthy 
of  note.  Frescoes  on  the  "  Death  of  the  Virgin "  in  the 
chapel  of  the  Public  Palace  at  Sienna,  and  a  few  pictures  at 
Perugia,  and  in  the  Louvre,  are  his  principal  remains. 

Andrea  Orcagna,  or  Andrea  Arcagnuolo  di  Cione,  born  in 
1329,  was  the  son  of  a  Florentine  goldsmith,  and  became  pro- 
ficient as  an  "  architect,  goldsmith,  sculptor,  painter,  mosaist, 
and  poet."  Orcagna  is  a  corruption  of  his  second  name,  which, 
in  its  primary  meaning,  signified  "archangel."  His  talents 
as  a  sculptor  will  be  best  appreciated  by  an  inspection  of  his 
"  Tabernacle  "  in  the  church  of  Or  San  Michele,  Florence  ; 
while  the  Loggia  di  Lanzi,  in  the  same  city,  a  stately  gather- 
ing-place for  the  old  public  assemblies,  testifies  to  his  powers 
as  an  architect.  But  he  is  most  interesting  to  us  from  his 
famous  frescoes  in  the  Campo  Santo.  This  Campo  Santo,  or 
burial-place  of  Pisa,  is  a  remarkable  spot,  with  many  curious 
associations.  Ships  which,  shortly  before  the  year  1200, 
sailed  from  Jerusalem  to  Pisa,  brought  fifty-three  loads  of 
sacred  earth  from  Mount  Calvary,  which  were  deposited  in  a 
small  inclosure  near  the  Pisan  cathedral,  and  planted  with 
cypress-trees.  An  arcade,  very  like  cloisters,  with  adjoining 
chapels,  was  built  around  it.  On  one  side  of  this  arcade 
were  many  windows,  looking  upon  the  holy  field,  while  the 
opposite  side  was  decorated  with  appropriate  frescoes  by  the 
best  artists.  This  process  of  decoration  was  continued  for 
two  hundred  years.  Dampness  and  time  soon  discolored  and 


EARLY  ITALIAN  PAINTING.  49 

defaced  the  pictures,  but  when  in  good  preservation  they 
were  unique  of  their  kind.  Conspicuous  among  all  were 
Orcagna's  "  Last  Judgment "  and  "  Triumph  of  Death." 
Their  authenticity  has  been  often  questioned,  but  the  balance 
of  probabilities  is  yet  in  its  favor.  The  "  Last  Judgment  " 
is  a  large  and  powerful  composition,  in  which  Christ,  accom- 
panied by  the  Madonna,  decides  the  destinies  of  the  rising 
dead.  Mrs.  Jameson  observes  that  the  attitudes  of  Christ 
and  the  Virgin  were  afterward  borrowed  by  Michael  Angelo 
in  his  celebrated  "  Last  Judgment,"  but  that  even  he  could 
not  equal  this  old  fresco  in  dignity  and  grandeur.  The  other 
yet  more  singular  and  terrible  wall-painting  is  the  "  Triumph 
of  Death,"  of  which  I  add  Lord  Lindsay's  description : 

"  It  is  divided  by  an  immense  rock  into  two  irregular 
portions.  In  that  to  the  right  Death,  personified  as  a  female 
phantom,  bat-winged,  claw-footed,  her  robe  of  linked  mail, 
and  her  long  hair  streaming  on  the  wind,  swings  back  her 
scythe  in  order  to  cut  down  a  company  of  the  rich  ones  of 
the  earth.  Castruccio  Castracani  and  his  gay  companions, 
seated  under  an  orange-grove,  are  listening  to  the  music  of  a 
troubadour  and  a  female  minstrel ;  little  genii  or  Cupids  float 
in  the  air  above  them ;  one  young  gallant  caresses  his  horse, 
a  lady  her  lapdog — Castruccio  alone  looks  abstractedly  away, 
as  if  his  thoughts  were  elsewhere.  But  all  are  alike  heedless 
and  unconscious,  though  the  sand  is  run  out,  the  scythe  fall- 
ing, and  their  doom  sealed. 

"  Meanwhile  the  lame  and  the  halt,  the  withered  and  the 
blind,  to  whom  the  heavens  are  brass  and  life  a  burden,  cry 
on  Death,  with  impassioned  gestures,  to  release  them  from 
their  misery,  but  in  vain ;  she  sweeps  past  and  will  not  hear 


50  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

them.  Between  the  two  groups  lie  a  heap  of  corpses,  already 
mown  down  in  her  flight — kings',  queens,  bishops,  cardinals, 
young  men  and  maidens,  huddled  together  in  hideous  confu- 
sion :  some  are  dead,  others  dying — angels  and  devils  draw 
their  souls  out  of  their  mouths.  The  whole  upper  half  of  the 
fresco,  on  this  side,  is  filled  with  angels  and  devils  carrying 
souls  to  heaven  or  to  hell ;  sometimes  a  struggle  takes  place, 
and  a  soul  is  rescued  from  a  demon  who  has  unwarrantably 
appropriated  it.  The  angels  are  very  graceful,  and  their  in- 
tercourse with  their  spiritual  charge  is  full  of  tenderness  and 
endearment ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  wicked  are  hurried  off 
by  the  devils  and  thrown  headlong  into  the  mouth  of  hell, 
represented  as  the  crater  of  a  volcano  belching  out  flames, 
nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  composition.  These  devils  exhibit 
every  variety  of  horror  in  form  and  feature. 

"  Below  the  volcano,  a  tract  of  mountain-country  extends 
to  the  left  extremity  of  the  compartment,  representing,  appar- 
ently, the  desert  of  Egypt,  crowned  by  a  monastery,  and  peo- 
pled by  hermits.  A  hermit  is  seated,  reading,  in  front  of  the 
monastery;  another,  leaning  on  two  crutches,  stands  beside 
him  —  both  are  full  of  truth  and  character ;  a  third,  to  the 
left,  milks  a  doe ;  a  fourth  gazes  downward  after  the  fifth,  St. 
Macarius,  who  has  descended  the  mountain,  but  from  whom 
attention  is  distracted  by  a  gallant  cavalcade  of  lords  and 
ladies  who  ride  past  below  him,  their  falcons  on  their  wrists, 
returning  from  the  chase,  and  headed  by  Uguccione,  Signer 
of  Pisa,  and  by  the  Emperor  Louis  of  Bavaria.  They  issue 
from  a  narrow  gorge  of  the  mountains  ;  the  hermit,  St.  Maca- 
rius, stands  on  the  lowest  declivity,  and  invites  their  attention 
to  three  open  coffins  laid  beside  the  road,  in  which  are  seen 


EARLY  ITALIAN  PAINTING.  cx 

three  human  corpses  in  three  stages  of  decomposition.  They 
look  eagerly  down  upon  them,  Uguccione  holding  his  nose. 
The  lady  on  the  right  hand  seems  touched  with  the  spectacle, 
but  the  rest  are  indifferent ;  and  the  exhortation  of  the  hermit 
passes  by  like  idle  wird — they  scarcely  heed  him. 

"  Nothing  can  be  more  admirable  than  the  action  of  the 
animals  in  this  procession — the  horror,  especially  of  the 
horses,  shying  back,  and  yet  eagerly  peering  forward  as  they 
scent  the  carrion — nor  are  the  attitudes  and  action  of  their 
riders  less  graphic.  Verses  explanatory  of  the  subject  are 
dispersed  in  scrolls,  in  semi-Byzantine  taste,  throughout  the 
composition." 

Let  nobody,  however,  fancy  that  we  can  see  all  this  to- 
day, at  a  single  glance,  in  the  great  hall  of  the  Campo  Santo. 
Its  paintings  are  mutilated  and  injured,  and  it  needs  intelli- 
gence and  patience  to  correctly  trace  them  out ;  but,  as  excel- 
lent engravings  of  them  were  long  since  taken,  and  as  photo- 
graphs are  easily  procurable,  all  may  judge  for  themselves  of 
the  power  of  this  original  and  impressive  artist. 

Bernardo,  the  brother  of  Orcagna,  added  a  third  fresco  to 
the  series — a  representation  of  "  Hell,"  in  which  Satan  sits 
as  a  frightful,  fiery  giant,  with  flames  bursting  from  him  in  all 
directions.  Bernardo  also  assisted  in  Andrea's  frescoes  of 
"  Hell "  and  "  Paradise,"  in  the  Strozzi  Chapel  of  Santa 
Maria  Novella,  Florence. 

A  number  of  other  artists  were  employed  in  the  Campo 
Santo,  among  whom  may  be  mentioned  one  Spinello  Aretino, 
of  Arezzo  (1328-1400),  who  executed  scenes  from  the  life  of 
St.  Ephesus.  Unluckily  for  himself,  he  did  not  confine  his 
labors  to  that  edifice ;  but,  probably  stimulated  by  the  exam- 


52  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

pie  of  Bernardo,  painted  a  "  Fall  of  the  Angels  "  for  a  church 
of  his  native  city,  in  which  he  depicted  Satan  as  so  unutter- 
ably and  appallingly  hideous,  that  he  is  said  to  have  become 
insane  over  his  own  conception,  and  to  have  died  distracted. 
This  may  be  a  legend  without  foundation,  but  we  can  only 
wonder  why  a  similar  fate  did  not  befall  many  old  masters 
who  indulged  without  restraint  in  such  demoniacal  imagina- 
tions. 

It  is  pleasant  to  turn  from  these  creators  of  the  horrible 
to  the  mild,  peaceful,  and  seraphic  Fra  Angelico — "  the  St. 
John  of  art."  So  appropriate  and  universal  is  his  surname  of 
Angelico  that  few  are  aware  it  never  rightfully  or  even  monas- 
tically  belonged  to  him.  He  was  born  in  1387,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Mugello,  and  christened  Guido  Petri.  At  the  age  of 
twenty  he  entered  the  Dominican  convent  at  Fiesole  near 
Florence,  under  the  title  of  Fra  Giovanni.  Here  his  vocation 
soon  manifested  itself.  Learned  monks  might  write  of  heaven, 
zealous  monks  might  preach  of  heaven,  but  his  peculiar  call- 
ing was  to  paint  heaven  before  the  eyes  of  all.  He  began  his 
labors  as  a  miniaturist,  working  with  his  brother  Benedetto, 
who  was  also  an  illuminator  of  choral  books  and  missals ; 
but  the  agitations  of  thz  times  disquieted  even  the  dwellers 
on  the  heights  of  Fiesole,  and  the  brethren  were  sent  for  a 
season  to  Cortona,  where  we  still  find  Angelico's  early  works 
— a  "Madonna  with  Saints  and  Angels,"  an  "Annunciation," 
and  "  Scenes  from  the  Lives  of  the  Virgin  and  St.  Dominic." 
Returning  to  Fiesole,  he  remained  for  some  years  in  his  old 
abode,  till,  upon  the  acquisition  of  the  Florentine  monastery 
of  San  Marco,  the  order  removed  him  thither.  With  the 
history  of  this  monastery,  one  of  the  most  interesting  spots 


EARLY  ITALIAN  PAINTING.  53 

in  Florence,  his  name  will  ever  be  intimately  connected. 
There  he  dwelt  in  saintly  calm ;  humble,  holy,  devout ;  work- 
ing with  all  diligence  at  the  command  of  his  prior ;  taking  no 
gain  or  payment  for  himself;  altering  nothing,  because  he 
believed  his  first  inspiration  to  be  direct  from  God  ;  painting 
Christ  and  Mary,  according  to  Montalembert,  "only  on  his 
knees,  and  his  crifcifixes  amid  floods  of  tears ; "  adorning  the 
cells  of  the  friars  with  those  marvelous  frescoes  which  now 
shine,  faintly  faded,  "less  like  a  picture  at  all  than  some 
celestial  shadow  on  the  gray  old  walls."  An  eloquent  writer 
has  thus  imaged  his  convent-life  :  "  Around  him  all  actions 
were  prescribed,  and  all  objects  colorless ;  day  after  day  uni- 
form hours  brought  him  the  same  bare  walls,  the  same  dark 
lustre  of  the  wainscoting,  the  same  straight  folds  of  cowls 
and  frocks,  the  same  rustling  of  steps  passing  to  and  fro 
between  refectory  and  chapel.  But  amid  this  monotony  his 
heart  involuntarily  summoned  up  and  contemplated  the  con- 
course of  divine  figures.  Glittering  staircases  of  jasper  and 
amethyst  rose  above  each  other  up  to  the  throne  on  which 
sat  celestial  beings.  Golden  aureoles  gleamed  around  their 
brows ;  red,  azure,  and  green  robes,  fringed,  bordered,  and 
striped  with  gold,  flashed  like  glories.  All  was  light ;  it  was 
the  outburst  of  mystic  illumination." 

No  observer  of  to-day  need  consider  such  language  ex- 
aggerated if  he  carefully  notes  the  peculiar  merits  of  this 
master.  His  range  is  narrow,  but  within  its  own  limits  comes 
as  near  perfection  as  human  art  can  ever  reach.  He  painted 
only  sacred  subjects,  and  those  only  in  the  most  sacred  man- 
ner. His  forms  were  always  closely  draped — a  fortunate  cir- 
cumstance, when  we  consider  his  ignorance  of  anatomy ;  his 


54  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

coloring  was  clear,  pure,  and  tender  beyond  the  power  of 
words  to  describe ;  and  the  expression  of  his  faces  so  inno- 
cently radiant,  so  exalted,  and  so  heavenly,  that  a  glance  at 
their  beauty  is  like  a  glimpse  into  another  world.  No  wonder 
that  after  regarding  his  holy  throngs  he  should  be  ever  known 
as  Fra  Angelico,  and  almost  canonized  in  addition  as  "  II 
Beato,"  so  that  in  Italian  catalogues  he  is  Usually  entered  as 
"Beato  Angelico."  His  deficiencies  were  what  might  natu- 
rally be  expected.  His  chief  gift  being  imaginative  spirituality, 
he  failed  in  delineating  the  real  and  the  actual.  His  drawing  is 
often  faulty,  and  his  proportions  incorrect.  He  could  depict 
repose,  but  not  action ;  and  when  he  attempts  to  portray  the 
workings  of  any  evil  or  malignant  passions  the  result  is  almost 
ludicrously  weak.  All  his  sinners  "  look  like  sheep  in  wolves' 
clothing."  Even  if  he  tries  to  paint  foul  fiends — an  effort 
into  which  I  regret  to  say  his  gentle  nature  was  on  rare  oc- 
casions beguiled — they  are  only  very  ugly  but  very  tame  hob- 
goblins, with  scarcely  any  flavor  of  the  genuine  devil  in  their 
composition. 

In  America  Fra  Angelico  is  most  widely  known  by  the 
angels  on  gilded  panels  which  are  so  generally  imported  into 
every  city.  These  are  copied  from  the  originals  in  the  Uffizi 
Gallery,  Florence,  where  they  are  painted  in  the  frame  of  a 
large  picture,  styled  a  "Tabernacle,"  representing  a  Madonna 
and  Child,  with  attendant  saints.  The  angels,  playing  on  in- 
struments, stand,  in  the  size  and  colors  in  which  we  see  them, 
on  the  gilt  ground  of  the  frame,  entirely  surrounding  the  in- 
terior picture.  A  much  smaller  but  most  exquisitely  finished 
painting  of  a  similar  subject,  similarly  grouped,  a  standing 
Madonna  and  Child,  called  the  "  Madonna  della  Stella,"  with 


EARLY  ITALIAN  PAINTING.  55 

figures  of  miniature  proportions,  rests  upon  an  easel  in  one 
of  the  apartments  of  San  Marco.  This  building  also  contains, 
besides  the  frescoes  in  the  cells  already  alluded  to,  and  sev- 
eral other  wall-paintings  in  the  corridors  and  cloisters,  Fra 
Angelico's  largest  but  by  no  means  most  pleasing  work— a 
-"Crucifixion"  or  "Adoration  of  the  Cross,"  in  the  chapter- 
house, made  the  scene  of  the  interview  between  Savonarola 
and  Romola  in  George  Eliot's  novel.  This  immense  com- 
position covers  the'  whole  side  of  the  room,  and  shows  us 
Christ  on  the  cross,  with  the  two  thieves  near  him,  and  St. 
Mark,  the  patron  saint  of  the  convent,  and  many  life-sized 
Fathers,  founders  and  heads  of  orders,  gathered  in  worship- 
ing rows  below.  "  The  main  event  goes  for  nothing,  but 
Jerome  and  Augustine,  Francis  and  Dominic,  with  faces  more 
real  than  our  own,  have  carried  on  a  perpetual  adoration 
ever  since,  and  never  drooped  or  failed."  In  the  Florentine 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts  we  discover  a  few  other  specimens  of 
the  painter's  skill,  especially  a  "  Last  Judgment,"  an  extraordi- 
nary piece,  whose  centre  represents  a  long  pavement  of  tombs, 
out  of  which  rise  the  dead,  having  thrown  off  the  stone  slabs 
which  marked  their  burial-place.  Above  them  we  perceive 
Christ  the  Judge  with  descending  angels.  At  his  left  is  hell, 
with  demons  seizing  the  condemned;  while  at  his  right  is 
paradise,  a  fair,  flowery  meadow  lit  with  stars,  and  thronged 
with  angels  who  press  forward  to  receive  the  just.  They 
meet;  they  embrace;  golden  halos  gleam  upon  their,  heads, 
and  hand-in-hand  they  glide  along,  through  the  bright  per- 
spective, toward  a  distant '  gate-way  luminous  with  rays  of 
glory.  Monk  though  he  was,  the  artist  distributed  his  rewards 
and  punishments  with  singular  impartiality ;  for  many  a  friar, 
5 


56  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

and  even  bishop,  meets  our  gaze  in  his  assembly  of  the 
wicked.  The  other  picture,  usually  placed  upon  an  easel  be- 
side it,  is  the  "  Descent  of  Christ  into  Hades. "  This  cannot 
boast  of  beauty,  but  is  very  interesting  and  grotesque.  Ha- 
des, or  "  Limbus,"  as  it  was  then  called,  is  a  dark,  rocky 
cave.  Christ,  bearing  the  banner  of  the  cross,  has  burst  open 
its  heavy  door;  in  fact,  the  door  has  literally  fallen  down, 
and  a  howling  devil  lies  under  it,  crushed  perfectly  flat.  Re- 
joicing souls  rush  to  greet  the  Redeemer,  and  Adam  seizes 
him  by  the  hand.  In  the  corners  of  the  cavern,  or  up  among 
the  black  rocks,  ugly  little  imps  look  on  with  disappointed 
rage. 

A  more  beautiful  and  celebrated  composition  of  Fra  An- 
gelico  hangs  at  present  in  the  Louvre.  It  is  a  "  Coronation 
of  the  Virgin,"  a  subject  in  which  he  particularly  delighted. 
But  of  all  his  Coronations  this  is  the  gem.  August  Schlegel, 
the  German  critic,  has  written  a  whole  volume  in  its  honor. 
An  enthroned  Saviour  sets  a  diadem  upon  the  head  of  the 
Madonna,  who  bends  meekly  forward.  A  chorus  of  twelve 
angels  play  their  harps,  viols,  and  other  instruments,  in  har- 
monious concert ;  below  them  a  crowd  of  holy  figures  ador- 
ingly behold  the  scene,  and  several  lovely  saints,  among  them 
St.  Catharine  with  her  wheel,  St.  Agnes  with  her  lamb,  and 
St.  Cecilia  crowned  with  roses,  kneel  around.  Seldom  shall 
we  find  a  picture  which  can  give  more  pleasure  than  this  rich 
and  varied  piece.  So  clear  and  brilliant,  yet  so  soft  in  color, 
its  sweet,  serene  faces  full  of  joy  and  calm,  we  may  still  say 
of  it  what  Vasari  wrote,  more  than  three  hundred  years  ago, 
when  he  declared  himself  convinced  that  those  blessed  spirits 
could  look  no  otherwise  in  heaven  itself. 


EARLY  ITALIAN  PAINTING.  S7 

Thus  praying  and  painting,  the  course  of  Fra  Angelico's 
cloister-life  flowed  on  most  tranquilly  for  nearly  forty  years. 
But  his  fame  had  reached  to  Rome,  and  in  1446  the  then 
reigning  pope  desired  his  presence  at  the  Vatican,  where  he 
decorated  a  chapel  with  frescoes  from  the  histories  of  Saints 
Lawrence  and  Stephen.  This  is  his  only  work  now  existing 
in  that  city,  except  three  small  pictures  ascribed  to  him  in 
the  Corsini  Gallery.  During  a  short  stay  at  Orvieto,  he  began 
a  "  Last  Judgment "  in  the  cathedral,  which  was  afterward 
finished  by  Luca  Signorelli.  The  purity  and  elevation  of  his 
nature  so  excited  the  admiration  of  the  pope  that  he  offered 
him  the  archbishopric  of  Florence  as  soon  as  it  became 
vacant;  but  Angelico  refused,  saying  that  he  did  not  feel 
himself  capable  of  ruling  men,  and  requested  that  another 
might  be  appointed.  He  died  in  Rome,  in  1455,  at  the  age 
of  sixty-eight,  and  is  buried  in  the  church  of  Santa  Maria 
Sopra  Minerva.  On  the  simple  slab  which  serves  as  his  mon- 
ument is  a  Latin  inscription  which  has  been  thus  translated  : 

"  It  is  no  honor  to  be  like  another  Apelles,  but  rather,  O 
Christ,  that  I  gave  all  my  gains  to  Thy  poor.  One  was  a  work 
for  earth,  the  other  for  heaven.  A  city,  the  flower  of  Etruria, 
bare  me,  John  !  " 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


CHAPTER  V. 

TRADITIONS   OF   PAINTING. 

To  properly  comprehend  the  rise  and  progress  of  paint- 
ing during  the  middle  ages,  something  more  is  necessary  than 
mere  biographies  of  the  painters.  We  must  be  able  to  enter 
somewhat  into  the  spirit  of  the  times,  to  understand  what 
thoughts  and  aspirations  were  likely  to  find  expression  in  art, 
what  subjects  were  best  calculated  to  reach  the  popular 
mind,  and  in  what  form  and  through  what  technical  methods 
they  were  conveyed.  The  brief  history  of  the  earliest  mas- 
ters, detailed  in  the  few  preceding  chapters,  suffices  to  show 
that  the  Church,  and  the  traditions  of  the  Church,  were  the 
first  motive  powers  in  art  as  well  as  in  literature.  A  certain 
framework  of  faith  was  the  very  basis  upon  which  all  civilized 
society  rested.  We  may  differ  in  our  estimate  of  the  quality 
and  value  of  that  faith,  but  the  fact  is  indisputable.  To  set 
forth  its  truth,  and  illustrate  its  legends,  was  long  held  to  be 
the  chief  end  of  the  human  intellect.  Even  the  Real  was  for 
many  centuries  kept  in  rigorous  subjection  to  the  Ideal,  or 
considered  as  its  antagonist;  and  it  was  only  very  slowly 
that  their  true  relation  began  to  be  appreciated.  Painting 
was  first  entirely  sacred ;  subsequently  the  historical  and  clas- 
sical elements  were  added ;  now  we  understand  that  all  fields 
are  open,  and  that  it  may  gather  its  laurels  where  it  will. 


TRADITIONS  OF  PAINTING.  ^ 

But  during  the  fourteen  Christian  centuries  in  which  we  have 
been  at  present  interested,  and,  in  a  modified  degree,  for 
some  time  afterward,  all  art  was  ecclesiastical  in  sentiment 
and  expression.  Its  usual  aim  was  to  portray  in  the  most 
graphic  manner,  and  with  the  most  emotional  results,  the 
various  scenes  in  the  life  of  Christ,  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  and 
of  the  favorite  saints ;  together  with  such  representations  of 
doctrines  or  holy  mysteries  as  best  tended  to  the  instruction 
of  the  people.  Whatever  embellishments  of  these  events  or 
doctrines  had  been  supplemented  by  tradition  were  unhesi- 
tatingly accepted  and  embodied  with  the  original  facts. 
Symbolism  was  an  important  part  of  the  artistic  creed ;  even 
different  colors  had  a  different  significance.  We  shall  there- 
fore devote  some  pages  to  ascertain  what  were  the  main 
events  within  whose  limits  the  painter  labored,  and  how  and 
with  what  accessories  he  was  accustomed  to  depict  them.  So 
only  can  we  appreciate  and  explain  the  numberless  pictures 
of  the  old  masters  which  we  find,  not  only  in  all  European 
galleries  and  churches,  but  in  the  very  engravings  and  photo- 
graphs which  we  hang  in  our  own  houses. 

And  first  we  must  remember  that  oil-painting,  as  we  now 
see  it,  was  in  those  days  unknown.  Pictures  were  either  fres- 
coes, executed  in  large  proportions  on  the  outer  and  inner 
walls  of  churches,  palaces,  and  public  buildings,  with  colors 
ordinarily  light  in  hue,  laid  quickly  on  the  plaster  while  still 
damp  and  fresh  (hence  the  name  fresco) ;  or  they  were  done 
in  distemper  (a  tempera),  upon  panels  pf  wood,  with  colors 
mixed,  not  with  oil,  but  with  fig-juice,  gum,  or  white  of  egg. 
Sometimes  the  same  preparation  was  used  on  a  ground  of 
lime,  polished  "as  white  as  milk,  and  as  smooth  as  ivory." 


60  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

When  these  were  small  in  size  they  might  be  called  panel  or 
easel  pictures ;  yet  they  were  not  intended  to  ornament  the 
dwellings  of  citizens,  but  adorned  cathedrals,  churches,  or 
private  chapels;  or  possibly  the  doors  of  sacristies,  or  the 
presses  and  chests  in  which  the  robes  of  the  priests  and  the 
sacramental  vessels,  or  even  occasionally  a  maiden's  bridal 
gifts,  were  kept.  If  large  in  dimensions  they  were  employed 
as  altar-pieces,  and  were  often  architecturally  arranged.  "In 
the  centre  was  the  main  painting,  above  which  the  frame 
formed  pointed  arches,  each  containing  pictures  of  single 
saints,  while  below  was  a  platform,  called  a  predella,  which 
was  ornamented  by  small  designs  relating  to  the  principal 
subject.  When  the  altar-piece  was  in  two  parts,  united  by 
hinges,  it  was  called  a  diptych,  when  in  three  parts  a  triptych, 
whose  sides  or  doors  could  open  and  shut,  and  were  spoken 
of  as  'wings.'  On  these  wings  the  Annunciation  to  the  Vir- 
gin, or  the  portraits  of  the  donors  of  the  altar-piece,  might 
be  painted.  In  after-years,  when  removed  from  the  churches 
for  which  they  were  constructed,  these  altar-pieces  were 
taken  apart,  so  that  the  predella  and  upper  pieces  were  fre- 
quently lost,  or  carried  away  separately." 

These  being  the  uses  to  which  painting  was  as  yet  applied, 
we  are  less  inclined  to  wonder  that  it  was  confined  to  reli- 
gious themes.  Before  particularizing  the  number  and  treat- 
ment of  those  themes,  it  will  be  well  to  quote  the  standard 
explanation  of  the  mystic  meaning  of  the  colors  with  which 
the  artist  worked  : 

"  White  was  the  emblem  of  religious  purity,  joy,  or  life. 
The  Saviour  generally  wears  white  after  his  resurrection. 
The  Virgin  wears  white  only  in  the  Immaculate  Conception 


TRADITIONS  OF  PAINTING.  6 1 

and  the  Assumption.  Her  proper  dress  is  a  blue  mantle, 
with  a  star  in  front,  long  sleeves,  red  tunic,  and  head  veiled. 

"  Red  signifies  divine  love,  fire,  creative  power,  and  roy- 
alty. 

"White  and  red  roses,  as  worn  by  Saints  Cecilia  and 
Dorothea,  imply  love  and  innocence,  or  love  and  wisdom. 

"  In  a  bad  sense  red  implies  hatred,  blood,  war,  and  pun- 
ishment. Red  and  black  were  the  livery  of  hell  and  the 
devil. 

"  Blue,  or  the  sapphire,  is  heaven,  truth,  and  fidelity.  St. 
John  the  evangelist  wears  a  blue  tunic  and  red  mantle. 

"  Yellow,  or  gold,  was  the  symbol  of  the  sun,  goodness  of 
God,  marriage,  faith,  or  fruitfulness.  St.  Peter  wears  a  yel- 
low mantle  over  a  blue  tunic.  In  a  bad  sense  it  means  in- 
constancy, jealousy,  or  deceit.  A  dirty  yellow  is  the  livery 
of  Judas. 

"  Green,  or  emerald,  signifies  hope  or  victory. 

"  Violet,  union  of  love  and  truth ;  passion  and  suffering. 
Hence  it  was  worn  by  martyrs.  Mary  Magdalen,  as  patron 
saint,  wears  a  red  robe ;  as  a  penitent,  violet  and  blue.  Red 
and  green  with  her  signify  love  and  hope.  The  Virgin  wears 
violet  after  the  crucifixion ;  and  sometimes  the  Saviour  after 
the  resurrection. 

"  Gray  is  the  hue  of  mourning,  humility,  and  innocence 
accused.  Black  refers  to  darkness,  mourning,  wretchedness ; 
white  and  black  together,  to  humility  and  purity  of  life. 
They  are  the  colors  of  the  Carmelites  and  Dominicans." 

The  traditions  of  painting  range  through  the  history  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments ;  yet  the  principle  of  selection 
has  been  shown  here  as  well  as  elsewhere,  and  after  the  period 


62  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

of  the  Catacombs  we  find  the  events  of  the  Old  Testament 
comparatively  neglected.  Such  artists  as  wished  to  conform 
to  the  standard  sacred  chronology  were  willing  to  begin  their 
pictorial  records  by  representations  of  the  fall  of  Lucifer 
and  the  rebel  angels,  which,  they  were  taught,  took  place 
just  before  the  creation.  This  was  the  correct  order,  not 
only  for  ecclesiastical  art  but  for  ecclesiastical  literature,  of 
which  we  have  an  example  in  Milton's  "  Paradise  Lost." 
In  many  cases,  the  degree  of  ugliness  in  these  angels  "  is 
proportioned  to  their  relative  distance  from  heaven  or  hell," 
Lucifer  being  the  most  hideous  of  all;  as  we  see  in  the 
fresco  of  Spinello  Aretino,  mentioned  in  the  last  chapter. 
Michael  Angelo  wished  to  execute  the  "  Fall  of  the  Angels  " 
on  the  wall  of  the  Sistine  Chapel  opposite  "  The  Last  Judg- 
ment," that  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  world's  history 
might  so  be  visible  :  but  never  carried  out  his  intention. 

Of  good  angels,  powerful  and  lovely  attendants  of  the 
Saviour,  the  Madonna,  and  mankind,  all  painters  were  roman- 
tically fond.  These  were  first  introduced  into  mosaics,  colos- 
sal in  height,  and  rather  severe  in  aspect,  and  their  ministry 
was  afterward  suggested  on  all  suitable  occasions.  They  an- 
nounce the  birth  of  our  Lord  ;  hymn  his  nativity ;  wait  upon 
his  mother,  and  on  all  the  scenes  of  his  life  and  passion ; 
mourn'  his  crucifixion ;  guard  his  tomb ;  proclaim  his  resur- 
rection ;  bear  up  the  Virgin  and  the  saints  to  heaven ;  com- 
fort the  sorrowing;  guide  the  wandering;  and  conduct  the 
blessed  to  the  joys  of  Paradise.  Strictly  speaking,  they  should 
have  no  sex ;  but  in  primitive  art  are  masculine,  "  with  the 
feminine  attributes  of  beauty  and  purity."  Female  angels 
were  quite  unheard  of  till  the  fifteenth  and  seventeenth  cen- 


TRADITIONS  OF  PAINTING.  63 

turies.  Among  the  seven  traditional  archangels,  St.  Michael 
(whose  name  signifies  "who  is  like  unto  God  "),  the  Captain 
of  the  Hosts  of  Heaven,  Overcomer  of  Lucifer,  Lord  of 
Souls,  and  Separator  of  the  Wicked  from  the  Just  at  the 
Resurrection;  Gabriel  (God  is  my  strength),  the  Herald  of 

-  the  Divine  Will,  and  Messenger  of  the  Annunciation  to  the 
Virgin  ;  and  Raphael  (the  medicine  of  God),  the  Chief  Guar- 
dian Angel,  are  familiar  to  Christian  art.  "  Michael  bears  the 
sword  and  scales ;  Gabriel  the  lily ;  and  Raphael  the  pilgrim's 
staff  and  gourd  full  of  water,  as  a  traveler." 

The  creation  of  the  earth,  Adam  and  Eve,  the  expulsion 
from  Eden,  and  the  lives  of  the  patriarchs,  have  been  indeed 
artistically  treated,  but  were  rarely  selected  as  subjects  be- 
tween the  tenth  and  fifteenth  centuries.  Adam  and  Eve 
found  most  favor  among  the  German  painters ;  the  religious 
avoidance  of  the  nude  being  sufficient  reason  for  their  early 
neglect  in  Italy.  The  prophets  were  more  frequently  deline- 
ated ;  grand  old  figures,  whose  aged  heads  afforded  fine  scope 

,  for  sublimity  of  form  and  expression.  Sibyls  were  looked 
upon  as  semi-Christian  candidates  for  art,  "  heathen  prophet- 
esses who  predicted  the  coming  of  Christ  to  the  Gentiles  as 
the  prophets  did  to  the  Jews."  They  were  supposed  to  have 
lived  at  different  periods,  and  to  have  been  twelve  in  num- 
ber ;  but  they  are  scarcely  incorporated  into  sacred  themes 
till  the  time  of  Michael  Angelo. 

John  the  Baptist,  the  prophet  of  the  New  Testament,  is 
the  first  historic  character  who  appears  as  a  universal  favor- 
ite. In  many  ancient  mosaics  and  in  many  baptisteries  he 
simply  takes  the  character  of  the  baptizer,  standing  in  the 
Jordan,  beside  our  Saviour,  in  water  which  sometimes 


64  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

scarcely  covers  his  feet,  and  sometimes  rises  up  in  heaping 
waves  to  his  very  shoulders.  He  has  a  staff  and  shell  from 
which  the  water  is  poured ;  kneeling  angels  hold  the  garments 
or  cloths.  Often  too  he  is  seen  beside  the  Madonna  and 
Child,  wrapped  in  a  hairy  mantle,  and  bearing  a  reed  cross  or 
scroll  inscribed  "' Ecce  Agnus  Dei."  On  such-  occasions  he  is 
tall  and  gaunt,  with  a  look  of  austerity  and  age.  Occasion- 
ally he  is  portrayed  as  one  of  the  patron  saints  of  Florence. 
A  few  large  frescoes  are  entirely  devoted  to  representations 
of  his  life,  from  birth  to  death ;  such  as  those  of  Ghirlan- 
dajo  in  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  Novella,  Florence,  and 
those  of  Filippo  Lippi  in  the  cathedral  of  Prato.  Some 
of  the  latter  are  very  beautiful,  especially  where,  still  a  child, 
he  takes  leave  of  his  parents  to  retire  to  the  wilderness,  or 
prays,  a  lonely,  devout  boy,  amid  the  rocky  desert.  His 
death  is  of  course  included  in  such  series,  but  it  did  not 
become  popular  as  a  separate  subject  till  about  the  six- 
teenth century,  when  we  have  the  fine  picture,  by  Luini, 
of  the  daughter  of  Herodias  with  the  head  of  St.  John  the 
Baptist,  a  composition  subsequently  adopted  by  artists  of  all 
nations.  Neither  does  his  introduction  as  a  child  into  the 
group  known  as  a  "  Holy  Family  "  occur  till  nearly  the  same 
period. 

Around  the  history  of  the  Virgin  Mary  so  many  traditions 
have  congregated,  and  have  been  so  eagerly  embodied,  that  it 
is  scarcely  possible  to  condense  them  into  a  single  chapter. 
Yet  it  is  very  desirable  to  know,  at  least  in  outline,  what  are 
the  motives  of  a  class  of  pictures  so  numerous  and  varied ; 
and  it  will  therefore  be  necessary  to  quote  largely  from  float- 
ing legends  and  from  the  apocryphal  gospels. 


TRADITIONS  OF  PAINTING.  65 

The  first  authentic  delineation  of  the  Virgin  displays  to 
us  the  mother  holding  the  infant  Christ.  Some  indeed  assert 
that  a  female  figure,  praying  with  outstretched  arms,  found  in 
the  Catacombs,  and  generally  alluded  to  as  an  "  Orante,"  was 
intended  as  a  portrait  of  Mary ;  'but  critics  seldom  uphold 
this  idea.  At  the  close  of  the  fifth  century  the  Virgin  and 
Child  were  represented  together ;  not  in  reference  to  any 
divine  element  in  the  mother,  but  to  express  a  belief  in  the 
humanity  as  well  as  the  divinity  of  the  Son,  which  had  been 
questioned  by  Nestorian  heretics.  The  reverence  paid  to  the 
one  was,  however,  soon  extended  to  the  other,  till  both  were 
honored  and  at  last  worshiped.  In  early  pictures  of  Byzan- 
tine origin  the  Virgin  sometimes  stands  alone,  a  veiled,  ma- 
jestic figure,  with  spreading  hands,  as  in  seventh-century 
mosaics  in  Rome  and  Ravenna.  By  the  fourteenth  century 
she  is  enthroned  in  solitary  state,  both  by  Italian  and  Flemish 
painters,  with  diadem  and  halo,  and  gorgeous  raiment.  In 
the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  she  becomes  the 
crowned  Madonna  of  mercy,  shielding  and  saving  the  human 
race,  and  protecting  them  under  the  folds  of  her  ample  robe, 
as  in  the  pictures  of  Filippo  Lippi  and  Fra  Bartolomeo  at 
Berlin  and  Lucca.  Her  half-length  figure,  as  the  Mater 
Dolorosa,  belongs  properly  to  the  sixteenth  century,  and  to 
the  later  Italian  and  Spanish  schools  which  followed  ;  but 
the  "  Stabat  Mater,"  or  Mary  beside  the  cross,  is  of  muqh 
earlier  date,  and  is  given  us  by  Fra  Angelico  and  other  devo- 
tional painters.  The  Immaculate  Conception,  as  a  subject  of 
art,  is  quite  modern,  and  originated  in  Spain,  where  Murillo 
did  his  best  to  perpetuate  it. 

But  it  is  the  group  of  the  Madonna  and  Child  which  most 


66  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

excites  our  attention.  This  was  built  into  Byzantine  and 
Italian  mosaics,  and  we  have  seen  that  it  is  so  frequently 
depicted  by  every  early  painter  that,  if  any  of  their  works 
remain,  a  Virgin  and  infant  Christ  is  sure  to  be  among  them. 
Such  ancient  Virgins  are  seated,  and  always  carefully  draped 
in  a  red  tunic  with  blue  veil  and  mantle  :  the  Child  also  was 
at  first  invariably  draped,  a  white  tunic  being  the  orthodox 
garb  ;  by-and-by  this  garment  disappeared.  Saints  and  an- 
gels were  sometimes  added ;  while  the  patron  saints  of  the 
city,  church,  or  convent,  for  which  the  picture  was  painted, 
often  stood  adoringly  near. 

The  historical  life  of  the  Virgin  traditionally  begins  with 
the  meeting  of  her  parents,  Joachim  and  Anna,  and  ends  with 
her  assumption  and  coronation.  Many  series  of  frescoes 
have  been  painted  to  illustrate  such  legendary  scenes.  All 
these  frescoes  show  us  the  birth  of  the  Virgin  in  a  stately 
apartment  (for  her  family  was  "  exceedingly  rich  "),  where 
St.  Anna  lies  beneath  a  canopy,  or  sits  up  in  bed  to  receive 
the  congratulations  of  the  noble  ladies  who  come  to  visit  her. 
Attendants  wash  the  new-born  babe,  and  bring  in  refresh- 
ments. Examples  of  this  subject  are  found  by  Taddeo  Gad- 
di,  in  the  Baroncelli  Chapel  of  Santa  Croce,  Florence;  by 
Ghirlandajo,  in  Santa  Maria  Novella,  Florence  ;  afterward  by 
Andrea  del  Sarto,  in  the  church  of  the  Annunziata  in  the 
same  city ;  and  by  Pinturrichio,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  in 
the  church  of  Santa  Maria  del  Popolo,  Rome. 

Her  presentation  in  the  temple,  as  a  very  young  girl,  is 
next  in  order.  She  is  dressed  in  blue  or  white,  with  flowing 
hair,  and  ascends  the  fifteen  steps  of  the  temple,  sometimes 
holding  a  taper  in  her  hand.  The  aged  high-priest  stands 


TRADITIONS  OF  PAINTING.  67 

waiting  to  receive  her,  and  a  crowd  of  maidens  and  followers 
form  a  procession  behind.  This,  too,  is  among  the  frescoes 
already  mentioned ;  and  is  given  by  several  other  artists,  par- 
ticularly in  the  Venetian  school  by  Carpaccio,  Titian,  and 
Tintoretto.  Titian's  large  painting  in  the  Venice  Academy 
is  one  of  the  most  attractive  instances. 

Now  succeeds  her  marriage,  which  tradition  fixes  at  the 
age  of  fourteen  or  fifteen.  According  to  St.  Jerome's  legend, 
her  suitors  were  required  to  deposit  wands  or  rods  in  the 
temple  overnight,  that  whichever  should  blossom  into  leaves 
and  flowers  might  indicate  the  appointed  husband.  In  the 
frescoes  and  pictures  we  behold  Joseph  and  Mary  standing 
before  the  priest,  who  joins  their  hands.  Maidens  attend  the 
Virgin,  while  the  disappointed  suitors  look  silently  on.  In 
Giotto's  composition  at  Padua,  one  of  them  is  about  to  strike 
Joseph,  while  another  breaks  his  useless  wand  across  his 
knee.  This  last  incident  occurs  again  in  Raphael's  celebrated 
Sposalizio  at  Milan.  Giotto,  Angelico,  Perugino,  and  Ra- 
phael, as  well  as  Taddeo  Gaddi  and  other  Florentines,  have 
attempted  this  marriage-scene.  Joseph  is  commonly  repre- 
sented as  at  least  middle-aged,  and  often  very  old.  In  some 
ancient  German  pieces  he  is  almost  in  his  dotage,  and  is 
wrapped  "in  furs  and  an  embroidered  gown." 

The  Annunciation  follows,  treated  either  historically  or  as 
a  mystery.  The  event  was  supposed  to  have  taken  place  on 
an  evening  in  the  month  of  March,  at  the  hour  after  sunset 
called  the  "Ave  Maria."  Mary's  bedroom  was  considered 
on  the  whole  as  the  most  suitable  spot  for  its  representation  ; 
and  we  repeatedly  see  her  kneeling  at  a  "  Prie-Dieu,"  with  a 
pot  of  lilies,  her  symbolical  flower,  near  her,  and  a  work- 


68  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

basket,  or  even  a  spinning-wheel,  close  by.  The  archangel 
Gabriel  enters  at  the  door,  bearing  a  spray  of  lilies,  or,  in 
some  antique  specimens,  an  olive-branch.  His  drapery  is 
usually  rich  and  full,  while  his  wings  may  be  peacock-eyed, 
or  ornamented  with  gold.  Sometimes  the  angel  kneels  be- 
fore the  Virgin,  sometimes  the  Virgin  before  the  angel.  The 
dove  of  the  Holy  Spirit  should  of  course  be  present.  Often 
the  Eternal  Father  is  introduced  as  a  majestic  and  venerable 
form,  looking  benignly  from  the  clouds,  and  sending  forth  the 
dove.  Most  painters,  from  the  early  Siennese  school  down 
to  modern  times,  have  delighted  in  this  theme,  varied  in  atti- 
tudes and  other  unimportant  particulars.  The  scene  of  the 
Mystery  has  been  also  changed.  In  some  compositions  we 
find  the  Madonna  in  a  cloister ;  in  others,  standing  on  a 
green  hill,  or  seated  enthroned  under  a  canopy,  or  even  in  a 
rose-garden,  in  allusion  to  the  verse  in  Canticles,  "  A  garden 
inclosed  is  my  sister,  my  spouse  !  " 

The  Visitation  of  Mary  to  Elizabeth,  in  which  the  two 
women  meet  and  embrace,  holds  its  rank  among  the  frescoes, 
and  is  also  the  subject  of  separate  easel-pieces.  The  three 
most  famous  examples  are  by  Mariotto  Albertinelli,  1474,  in 
the  Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence,  where  they  salute  each  other 
under  an  Italian  archway;  by  Ghirlandajo  in  the  Louvre, 
and  by  Raphael  at  Madrid. 

The  legends  from  the  nativity  to  the  resurrection  and 
ascension  of  our  Lord  we  shall  presently  touch  upon  while 
noticing  the  treatment  of  the  life  of  Christ.  In  describing 
what  followed  the  resurrection,  quaint  old  writers  have  re- 
corded that  Christ,  after  rising  from  the  dead,  appeared  first 
of  all  to  his  mother,  who  was  praying  in  the  solitude  of  her 


TRADITIONS  OF  PAINTING. 


69 


chamber;  "while  she  prayed,  a  host  of  angels  surrounded 
her,  singing  '  Regina  Coeli :  '  and  then  came  Christ,  partly 
clothed  in  a  white  garment,  having  in  his  left  hand  the  stand- 
ard of  the  cross ;  and  with  him  came  the  patriarchs  and 
prophets  whose  long-imprisoned  spirits  he  had  released  from 
-Hades."  This,  however,  was  seldom  painted  till  the  sixteenth 
and  seventeenth  centuries. 

The  poetical  tradition  relating  to  the  death  and  assump- 
tion of  the  Virgin,  I  repeat  in  substance  from  the  "  Christian 
Art "  of  Lord  Lindsay,  who  copied  it  from  its  ancient 
source : 

"  The  Virgin  dwelt,  for  twenty-four  years  after  the  ascen- 
sion, in  her  house  beside  Mount  Zion.  One  day  the  angel 
Gabriel  came  and  reverently  saluted  her,  and  told  her  that 
after  three  days  she  should  depart  from  the  flesh,  and  reign 
with  him  forever.  He  gave  her  also  a  palm-branch  from 
Paradise,  which  he  commanded  should  be  borne  before  her 
bier.  And  the  palm-branch  was  green  in  the  stem,  but  its 
leaves  were  like  the  morning  star." 

Then  the  apostles  were  miraculously  summoned  to  be 
with  her  when  she  should  die. 

"And  when  the  Virgin  beheld  the  apostles  assembled 
round  her,  she  blessed  the  Lord ;  and  they  sat  around  her 
and  watched,  with  lights  burning  till  the  third  day. 

"  And  toward  nightfall,  on  the  third  day,  Jesus  came 
down  with  his  hosts  of  saints  and  angels,  and  they  ranged 
themselves  before  Mary's  couch,  and  sweet  hymns  were  heard 
at  intervals,  till  the  middle  of  the  night.  Then  Jesus  called 
her  softly,  twice,  that  she  should  come  to  him,  and  she  an- 
swered that  she  was  ready  joyfully  to  yield  her  spirit.  And 


70  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

thus  her  spirit  quitted  the  body  and  flew  into  the  arms  of  her 
Son ;  and  she  neither  suffered  pain,  nor  her  body  corruption. 

"  And  straightway  there  surrounded  her  flowers  of  roses, 
which  are  the  blessed  company  of  martyrs ;  and  lilies  of  the 
valley,  which  are  the  bands  of  angels,  confessors,  and  vir- 
gins. 

"  And  when  the  body  was  laid  on  the  bier,  Peter  and  Paul 
uplifted  it,  and  the  other  apostles  ranged  themselves  around 
it.  And  John  bore  the  palm-branch  in  front  of  it.  And 
Peter  began  to  sing,  '  In  Exitu  Israel  de  Egypto,'  and  the 
rest  joined  softly  in  the  psalm.  And  the  Lord  covered  the 
bier  and  the  apostles  with  a  cloud,  so  that  they  might  be 
heard  and  not  seen  ;  and  the  angels  were  present,  and  sing- 
ing with  the  apostles ;  and  all  the  city  was  gathered  to  that 
wondrous  melody. 

"  And  the  apostles  laid  the  body  of  the  Virgin  in  the 
tomb,  and  they  watched  beside  it  three  days.  And  on  the 
third  day  the  Lord  appeared  with  a  multitude  of  angels,  and 
raised  up  Mary,  and  she  was  received,  body  and  soul,  into 
heaven." 

Another  slightly  different  version  makes  the  saluting  angel 
not  Gabriel,  but  Michael,  the  lord  of  souls,  who  carries  either 
a  starry  palm  or  a  taper.  Byzantine  artists,  as  well  as  Italian, 
have  left  us  many  such  compositions.  Cimabue  painted  the 
miraculous  death  at  Assisi;  Giotto,  Angelico,  and  others  in 
every  age  reproduced  it ;  frescoes  of  Mary's  life  rivaled  each 
other  in  depicting  it ;  while  Taddeo  Bartolo  devoted  the  wall 
of  the  chapel  of  the  Public  Palace  at  Sienna  to  its  commem- 
oration. 

Pictures  of  the  Virgin's  Assumption  are  easily  recognized. 


ENTHRONED  VIRGIN  (Gitido  A'cut). 


p.  70. 


TRADITIONS  OF  PAINTING.  ?I 

Their  characteristics  are  nearly  uniform.  She  is  draped,  and 
upborne  by  angels  ;  sometimes  her  robes  are  spangled.  The 
expectant  Saviour  waits  above.  Seven  centuries  have  thus 
represented  her.  The  old  wall-paintings  of  Giunta  Pisano  at 
Assisi  may  be  ruder  but  are  not  less  expressive  than  the  float- 
ing forms  of  Guido  or  Murillo.  But  the  "  Assumption  "  by 
Titian  at  Venice  throws  all  others  into  the  shade,  and  stands 
preeminent  as  one  of  the  marvels  of  art. 

With  the  legend  of  the  Assumption  is  connected  the  story 
of  the  Girdle.  It  is  said  that  St.  Thomas  was  not  present  at 
the  Madonna's  ascension,  and  on  being  told  the  tale  refused 
to  believe  it.  He  desired  the  tomb  to  be  opened ;  it  was 
done,  and  found  filled  with  lilies  and  roses.  "  Then  Thomas, 
looking  up  to  heaven,  beheld  the  Virgin  bodily,  in  a  glory  of 
light ;  and  she,  for  the  assurance  of  his  faith,  flung  down  to 
him  her  girdle,  the  same  which  is  to-day  preserved  in  the 
cathedral  at  Prato."  Of  course  the  cathedral  of  Prato  has 
illustrated  this  event  in  a  set  of  frescoes,  which  travelers  may 
examine,  after  contemplating  the  girdle  ! 

The  Coronation  of  the  Virgin  is  another  splendid  picto- 
rial tribute  to  this  queen  of  tradition.  But  it  is  not  seen  till 
the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  century,  when  we  find  it  in  mo- 
saics in  Rome  and  Florence.  Giotto  and  the  painters  of  the 
fourteenth  century  imparted  to  it  a  charm  of  purity  and 
sweetness,  as  in  Fra  Angelico's  "  Coronation  "  in  the  Louvre 
to  which  we  have  previously  referred.  The  Virgin  is  cus- 
tomarily seated,  veiled,  and  magnificently  draped.  She  in- 
clines her  head  with  humble  and  modest  mien,  while  Christ 
himself  places  the  crown  upon  her  brow ;  or,  in  rarer  exam- 
ples, she  kneels  before  him.  The  figures  may  be  surrounded 
6 


7  2  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

by  a  glory  of  seraphim.  A  few  cases  exist  where  God  the 
Father  gazes  down  from  above,  or  where  the  Trinity  unite  in 
the  coronation. 

In  the  life  of  Christ  the  statements  of  the  Bible  are  in  like 
manner  filled  out  by  tradition,  and  painted  with  equal  fer- 
vency. The  scriptural  descriptions  of  the  nativity  are  so 
minute  that  the  help  of  imagination  is  scarcely  needed.  The 
time  is  a  winter  midnight,  the  scene  a  stable.  In  the  earliest 
pictures  this  stable  is  a  rocky  cave,  where  the  Virgin  either  re- 
clines on  a  sort  of  couch,  or  more  commonly  sits  holding  the 
Child ;  Joseph  remains  near,  in  meditation.  Three  seraphs, 
afterward  increasing  to  an  angelic  chorus,  sing  the  "  Gloria  in 
Excelsis,"  while  the  ox  and  ass  are  wondering  or  even  ador- 
ing spectators  of  the  mystery.  This  ox  and  ass  are  necessary 
accessories  and  never  omitted,  for  the  one  animal  typifies  the 
Jews,  and  the  other  the  Gentiles.  Mrs.  Jameson  alludes  to 
some  old  German  pictures  in  which  "  the  Hebrew  ox  is  quiet- 
ly chewing  the  cud,  while  the  Gentile  ass  lifts  up  his  voice 
and  brays  with  open  mouth  as  if  in  triumph."  Somewhat 
later  the  scene  was  varied  from  a  cavern  to  a  wooden  shed, 
not  far  from  the  mouth  of  the  cave,  as  in  Taddeo  Gaddi's 
fresco  in  Santa  Croce,  Florence.  Then  come  the  shepherds, 
sometimes  with  shepherdesses,  pipes,  and  songs.  The  mother 
displays  the  Babe  to  their  astonished  eyes.  This  scene  is 
very  familiar,  and  all  have  probably  had  an  opportunity  to 
study  at  least  one  example  of  it  in  an  engraving  of  Correg- 
gio's  celebrated  "  Nativity,"  where  the  dazzling  light  which 
floods  the  picture  radiates  solely  from  the  holy  Child. 

From  a  survey  of  Italian  and  German  galleries  we  should 
infer  that  every  artist,  from  the  time  of  the  Byzantine  Empire 


TRADITIONS  OF  PAINTING. 


73 


to  the  seventeenth  century,  had  painted  at  least  one  "  Adora- 
tion of  the  Magi."  The  conclusion  would  of  course  be  un- 
warranted, yet  their  number  is  legion.  The  treatment  differs, 
but  certain  points  and  incidents  must  be  always  introduced. 
The  place  of  reception  is  frequently  changed.  The  Virgin, 
holding  the  Infant,  should  be  seated ;  but  she  may  sit  at  the 
entrance  of  a  temple,  or  under  a  shed,  or  enthroned  beneath 
a  canopy.  Over  this  shed  or  canopy  often  hangs  the  star, 
sometimes  looking  as  if  it  had  been  nailed  on  the  roof. 
Three  kings  approach  and  adore.  Tradition  proceeds  to  say 
that  the  first  of  these  kings  was  the  venerable  "  Caspar,"  who 
presented  gold  from  Tarsus;  the  second,  the  middle-aged 
"  Melchior,"  who  brought  frankincense  from  Arabia;  and  the 
third,  the  negro  "Balthasar,"  who  offered  myrrh  from  Ethio- 
pia. In  return,  the  Saviour  bestowed  upon  them  matchless 
gifts.  "  For  their  gold  he  gave  them  charity  and  spiritual 
riches ;  for  their  incense,  perfect  faith ;  and  for  their  myrrh, 
perfect  truth  and  meekness."  He  is  pictured  as  receiving 
them  graciously,  holding  up  two  fingers  of  his  little  hand  in 
the  act  of  benediction ;  or,  less  appropriately,  taking  some 
gold-pieces  from  the  coffer.  The  wise  men  may  be  alone,  but 
it  is  much  more  common  to  see  them  accompanied  by  an 
Eastern  train  of  pages,  followers,  horses,  dogs,  camels,  and 
even  elephants.  Joseph  may  be  absent,  or,  if  present,  should 
modestly  stand  aside.  I  remember  an  old  Florentine  com- 
position in  which  one  of  the  Magi  is  shaking  hands  with  him 
in  the  most  friendly  manner. 

A  different  though  pleasing  worship  of  the  Child  is  also 
found  in  the  class  of  paintings  entitled  "  The  Madre  Pia,"  or 
"The  Infant  Saviour  adored  by  his  Mother."  Here  the  Babe 


74 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


reposes  on  the  ground,  or  reclines  upon  a  wheat-sheaf,  which 
signifies  the  bread  of  life.  He  lays  his  finger  on  his  lip,  as  if 
to  say,  "  I  am  the  Word !  "  while  the  Virgin  and  Joseph  kneel 
a  short  distance  off.  An  angel,  too,  may  kneel  and  hold  a 
crown,  while  other  angels  are  occasionally  seen  in  the  sky, 
holding  a  cross,  with  the  instruments  of  the  passion.  This 
was  a  favorite  theme  with  Perugino,  Francia,  and  Lorenzo 
di  Credi. 

The  "  Presentation  in  the  Temple  "  originated  among  the 
Byzantines,  and  could  not  greatly  change  its  style.  Mary 
gives  the  Child  to  the  aged  Simeon ;  Anna,  the  prophetess, 
stands  by.  Nothing  could  be  finer  than  Fra  Bartolomeo's 
rendering  of  this  subject  at  Vienna.  It  is  also  displayed  to 
advantage  in  the  Venetian  school. 

The  Flight  into  Egypt  is  likewise  known.  The  holy 
family  journey  through  the  country;  a  flight  by  boat  is  an 
innovation  of  later  artists.  Sometimes  friends  and  attendants 
are  with  them,  as  in  the  Arena  frescoes  by  Giotto  in  Padua ; 
but  more  commonly  the  three  are  alone.  The  ox  and  ass 
accompany  them,  the  Virgin  generally  riding  the  ass;  and 
the  palm-tree  bends  its  branches  in  homage.  The  aspen  re- 
fused to  bow,  and  the  Infant  cursed  it  for  its  pride,  where- 
upon it  began  to  tremble,  and  trembles  to  this  day.  The 
kindred  scene  of  the  Repose  in  Egypt  does  not  seem  to  have 
been  depicted  till  the  fifteenth  or  sixteenth  century.  Here 
the  sacred  group  have  stopped  to  rest.  A  fountain  springs 
up  beside  them,  and  angels  bring  refreshments,  and  dance 
before  them,  or  minister  to  their  wants.  Joseph  also  waits  on 
them  in  various  ways,  or  leans  like  a  pilgrim  on  his  staff;  in 
a  curious  Dutch  painting  he  is  shaking  his  fist  to  silence  the 


TRADITIONS  OF  PAINTING.  75 

ass,  who,  while  Mary  and  the  Child  slumber,  has  opened  his 
mouth  to  bray. 

The  many  Holy  Families  where  Jesus  abides  with  his 
parents  at  Nazareth  tell  their  own  story ;  as  does  the  subject 
of  Christ  among  the  Doctors,  sought  and  found  by  his 
mother.  Of  the  Baptism  we  have  written  in  the  history  of 
St.  John  Baptist.  The  Marriage  at  Cana  is  almost  peculiar 
to  the  Venetians.  Paul  Veronese  has  immortalized  it  archi- 
tecturally in  his  splendid  picture  in  the  Louvre.  The  Raising 
of  Lazarus  existed  even  in  the  Catacombs ;  but  the  other 
miracles  and  the  parables  did  not  become  popular  till  near 
modern  times. 

The  representation  of  the  Transfiguration  is  almost  as 
ancient  as  Christian  painting  itself.  It  is  singular  to  observe 
in  a  small  picture  in  the  Florentine  Academy,  executed  either 
by  Giotto  or  one  of  his  disciples,  a  treatment  identical  with 
that  of  Raphael's  great  composition.  Christ  is  upraised 
above,  while  the  amazed  apostles  below  hide  or  shade  their 
eyes  from  his  dazzling  glory. 

The  incidents  of  the  Passion,  beginning  with  the  details 
of  Palm-Sunday,  furnish  copious  materials  for  the  painter. 
We  have  lately  spoken  of  Duccio's  altar-piece  at  Sienna, 
adorned  on  one  side  with  twenty-eight  such  representations. 
His  "  Entry  into  Jerusalem  "  is  very  graphic  and  excellent. 
An  animated  crowd  throngs  forth  to  meet  the  Redeemer, 
who  rides  with  dignity  upon  the  traditional  ass.  Figures  in 
the  trees  throw  down  branches  to  strew  the  way.  A  legend 
of  the  times  tells  us  that  "  the  dark  line  down  the  back  and 
across  the  fore-quarters  of  the  ass,  forming  the  shape  of  a 
Latin  cross,  was  the  heritage  of  the  race  from  that  day." 


76  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

Pictures  of  the  Last  Supper  have  been  multiplied  in  all 
Christian  countries.  The  earliest  instance  in  which  it  is  pre- 
sented to  us  is  in  embroidery  upon  a  deacon's  robe  of  the 
eighth  century,  shown  in  the  Vatican.  Byzantine  art  re- 
produced it,  both  in  sculpture  and  painting.  Giotto,  or 
one  of  his  pupils,  has  given  us  an  example  of  its  Italian 
treatment  in  the  old  refectory  of  Santa  Croce,  Florence; 
and  his  successors,  Ghirlandajo,  Luca  Signorelli,  Andrea  del 
Sarto,  Raphael,  and  others,  adhered  substantially  to  the 
same  type.  The  subject  was  called  "  II  Cenacolo,"  or  "  La 
Cena,"  and  was  very  popular  as  a  fresco  for  convent  refec- 
tories. There  is  always  a  long  table  at  which  Christ  and  the 
apostles  are  seated.  The  Saviour  is  generally  blessing  or  dis- 
tributing the  elements.  Sometimes  other  food,  such  as  cher- 
ries, apples,  or  fish,  is  lying  on  the  table.  In  the  position  of 
Judas  we  find  the  principal  variation.  He  is  either  among 
the  group  of  the  apostles,  only  distinguishable  by  action  and 
expression,  or,  as  is  often  the  case,  especially  among  the  early 
Florentines,  he  sits  alone  in  front,  villainously  ugly  and  mean. 
He  may  clutch  the  bag,  or  receive  the  sop ;  in  a  few  instances 
a  demon  crouches  near  him.  Occasionally  he  is  stealing  out 
of  the  door,  or  is  even  absent  altogether.  Every  one  will 
here  recall  Leonardo  da  Vinci's  famous  "  Cena "  at  Milan, 
which  in  a  later  chapter  will  be  fully  described. 

The  Agony  in  the  Garden,  though  often  attempted,  is 
ever  most  inadequately  rendered.  We  meet  it  in  an  old 
picture,  ascribed  to  Giotto,  in  the  Uffizi  Gallery,  called 
"  Christ  on  the  Mount  of  Olives,"  which  is  quaint  but  quiet. 
But  in  almost  every  case,  particularly  in  later  centuries,  the 
dramatic  element  introduced  makes  it  painful  in  the  ex- 


TRADITIONS  OF  PAINTING.  77 

treme.  The  same  remark  applies  to  the  Scourging  of  Christ, 
and  to  the  subject  known  as  "  Ecce  Homo,"  though  many 
critics  would  make  -an  exception  in  favor  of  Sodoma's  "  Christ 
bound  to  the  Pillar,"  at  Sienna,  or  of  Guido's  celebrated 
Head. 

The  Procession  to  Calvary  seeks  to  depict  the  super- 
human sufferings  of  the  Redeemer  with  more  or  less  success ; 
but  divine  expression  is  too  often  wanting.  The  agony  of 
the  Virgin,  who  so  hopelessly  longs  to  aid  him,  has  been  most 
forcibly  given,  as  in  Raphael's  wonderful  "  Lo  Spasimo  di 
Sicilia,"  at  Madrid. 

Upon  the  Crucifixion  itself  artists  have  concentrated  all 
their  powers.  In  early  times  angels  are  always  waiting  on 
the  scene,  to  lament,  comfort,  or  adore.  They  catch  the 
precious  blood-drops  in  golden  chalices,  or  kiss  the  lifeless 
hands,  or  hover,  in  wondering  grief,  above;  or  speed  away 
to  bear  to  heaven  the  tidings  of  the  finished  sacrifice.  The 
cross  is  frequently  placed  upon  the  summit  of  a  hill,  with  the 
two  thieves  on  either  side.  Tradition  mentions  the  names 
of  these  thieves  as  Dismas  and  Gestas.  The  penitent  in- 
clines his  head  toward  our  Lord,  the  impenitent  turns  his 
face  away.  The  souls  of  the  dying  thieves  are  sometimes  in- 
dicated by  little  naked  bodies  coming  out  of  their  mouths — 
St.  Michael  receiving  the  forgiven,  and  a  fantastic  demon  the 
condemned  spirit.  This  is  most  interestingly  portrayed  in  a 
large  fresco  by  Luini,  in  a  church  at  Lugano  on  the  Italian 
lakes,  as  well  as  in  a  number  of  other  instances.  The  face 
and  figure  of  the  Saviour  himself  in  his  last  moments  have 
been  .given  with  every  variety  of  conception.  Few,  however, 
can  be  satisfied  with  the  result ;  but  the  group  attendant  at 


78  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

the  crucifixion  is  often  touching  and  tender.  St.  John  stands 
below  on  the  left,  and  the  Virgin,  usually  with  the  other 
Maries,  on  the  right,  while  the  Magdalen 'embraces  the  foot 
of  the  cross.  Other  saints  or  spectators  may  be  added,  while 
kneeling  mediaeval  votaries  have,  on  some  occasions,  been 
painted  in.  The  soldier,  traditionally  named  Longinus,  who 
pierced  the  Saviour's  side  with  the  spear,  and  was  converted, 
is  present,  in  historical  compositions,  with  the  rest.  In  the 
frescoes  of  the  Spanish  chapel  of  the  church  of  Santa  Maria 
Novella,  Florence,  he  appears  "  in  a  rich  suit  of  black-and- 
gold  armor." 

The  next  subject,  the  Descent  from  the  Cross,  is  equally 
familiar,  especially  in  the  renowned  painting  by  Volterra. 
The  Western  Church  had  always  its  prescribed  mode  of  rep- 
resentation. Joseph  of  Arimathea  mounts  a  ladder  to  the 
right  of  the  Redeemer,  and  draws  the  nail  from  his  hand. 
Nicodemus  then  draws  the  nail  from  the  left  hand,  and  gives 
it  to  St.  John.  Afterward  Nicodemus  descends  and  takes 
the  nails  from  the  Feet,  while  Joseph  supports  the  partially 
relieved  body.  The  apostles  assist,  and  the  Virgin  holds 
the  right  hand  of  Christ,  embracing  and  weeping  over  it.  A 
Crucifixion  containing  only  the  solitary  figure  of  Christ  was 
a  subject  legitimately  descended  from  ancient  earrings  and 
sculptured  crosses,  but  reappeared  in  modern  art  in  the  six- 
teenth century.  A  most  noble  and  beautiful  example  will 
be  found  in  Guide's  altar-piece  in  the  church  of  San  Lorenzo 
in  Lucina,  Rome.  We  see  nothing  but  the  form  of  the  dying 
Saviour  standing  out  alone  against  the  stormy  darkness  of  a 
sunset  sky ;  but  his  look  of  unutterable  love,  and  sorrow,  and 
majesty,  never  fades  from  our  minds. 


TRADITIONS  OF  PAINTING. 


79 


The  "  Pieta,"  or  "  Dead  Christ  in  theArms  of  his  Mother," 
is  dear  to  the  Italian  heart.  We  meet  it  everywhere,  with  the 
same  general  rendering.  The  Virgin  holds  the  lifeless  body, 
while  the  Magdalen  and  St.  John  remain  with  her  to  mourn. 
The  intensity  of  the  expressions  depends  upon  the  genius  or 
'the  conception  of  the  artist.  In  other  existing  compositions 
the  dead  Christ  is  sustained  and  mourned  by  angels. 

The  Entombment  affords  material  for  a  scene  dramati- 
cally given.  In  some  old  representations  of  the  age  of 
Giotto  and  his  followers,  the  apostles,  aided  by  the  Virgin, 
deposit  the  body  in  a  sarcophagus ;  but  customarily  there  is 
a  rock-hewn  tomb  to  which  they  are  carrying  their  sacred 
burden.  Raphael,  Titian,  and  more  modern  painters,  adopt 
a  similar  treatment.  The  muscular  efforts  of  the  bearers 
are  too  frequently  made  disagreeably  visible ;  a  criticism 
which  is  applicable  even  to  Raphael's  much-admired  picture 
in  the  Borghese  Palace,  Rome. 

The  Descent  of  Christ  into  Hades  or  Limbus  was  too 
graphic  a  tradition  to  be  left  unembodied.  The  event  was 
supposed  to  have  been  related  by  the  sons  of  Simeon,  who, 
it  is  said,  were  among  those  who  •  rose  again  after  his  resur- 
rection, and  "  appeared  unto  many."  I  make  an  abridg- 
ment of  the  legend  quoted  by  Mrs.  Jameson.  It  was  the 
traditional  conclusion  of  the  crucifixion,  as  affecting  the  dead 
not  less  than  the  living  : 

"  Being  with  the  fathers  in    the  depths  of  hell,  in  the 
blackness  of  darkness,  suddenly  there  appeared  the  color  of 
the  sun  like  gold,  and  a  thick  purple  light,  enlightening  the' 
place  ;  whereupon  Adam  and  all  the  patriarchs  and  prophets 
rejoiced,  as  understanding  who  it  was  that  thus  cast  the  rays 


8o  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

of  his  glory  before  him.  And  Isaiah  the  prophet  cried  out 
and  said,  '  This  is  the  light  of  the  Father  and  of  the  Son  of 
God,  according  to  my  prophecy  when  I  was  alive  upon  earth.' 

"  And  then  Simeon  said,  '  Glorify  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ, 
the  Son  of  God,  whom  I  took  up  in  my  arms  when  an  infant 
in  the  temple.' 

"  Then,  while  all  the  saints  were  praising  God,  Satan,  the 
prince  and  captain  of  death,  addressed  Lucifer,  the  prince  of 
hell,  bidding  him  prepare  to  receive  him  who  still  hung  upon 
the  cross.  But  the  prince  of  hell  replied  in  consternation, 
and  adjured  Satan  not  to  bring  the  Crucified  One  to  his  keep- 
ing, for  he  should  have  no  power  to  hold  him,  and  would 
even  lose  them  whom  he  now  held  in  bondage. 

"  And  while  they  were  thus  in  altercation  there  arose  on  a 
sudden  a  voice  as  of  thunder,  and  the  rushing  of  winds,  say- 
ing, '  Lift  up  your  gates,  O  ye  princes,  and  be  ye  lift  up,  O 
everlasting  doors,  and  the  King  of  glory  shall  come  in.'  At 
which  the  prince  of  hell  desired  Satan-  to  depart,  or,  if  he 
were  a  warrior,  to  fight  with  the  King  of  glory.  And  then  he 
said  to  his  impious  officers,  '  Shut  the  brass  gates  of  cruelty, 
and  make  them  fast  with  iron  bars,  and  fight  courageously.' 
But  'the  mighty  Lord  entered,  in  likeness  of  a  man,  and  en- 
lightened those  places  which  had  ever  before  been  in  dark- 
ness. And  Death  and  all  the  legions  of  devils  were  seized 
with  horror  and  great  fear,  and  confessed  that  never  before 
did  earth  send  them  a  man  '  so  bright  as  to  have  no  spot 
and  so  pure  as  to  have  no  crime.' 

"  Now  Jesus,  turning  to  the  saints,  took  hold  of  Adam  by 
his  right  hand,  saying,  'Peace  be  to  thee,  and  to  all  thy 
righteous  posterity.'  On  which  Adam,  casting  himself  at  the 


TRADITIONS  OF  PAINTING.  8 1 

feet  of  the  Lord  with  tears,  magnified  him  with  a  loud  voice. 
And,  in  like  manner,  all  the  saints  prostrated  themselves,  and 
uttered  praises.  Then  David,  the  royal  prophet,  boldly  cried 
out,  and  said,  '  0  sing  unto  the  Lord  a  new  song,  for  he  hath 
done  marvelous  things  !  '  And  the  whole  multitude  of  saints 
answered,  '  This  honor  have  all  his  saints  :  praise  ye  the 
Lord  ! '  And  then  the  prophet  Habakkuk  spoke,  and  in 
like  manner  all  the  others.  And  the  Lord,  still  holding  Adam 
by  the  right  hand,  ascended  from  hell,  and  all  the  saints 
followed  him." 

Not  only  was  this  legend  considered  a  perfectly  proper 
theme  for  painting,  but  it  was  also  perpetuated  in  sculpture, 
especially  on  the  doors  of  old  cathedrals,  where  it  was  in- 
tended to  signify,  "  Thou  didst  open  the  kingdom  of  heaven 
to  all  believers." 

Representations  of  the  Resurrection  were  more  scriptural, 
but  scarcely  less  fanciful.  In  Giotto's  small  seiies  of  the 
"  Life  of  Christ  "  in  the  Florentine  Academy  we  behold  the 
Roman  soldiers  asleep  before  a  rocky  tomb,  out  of  which  steps 
the  Lord,  bearing  a  banner.  In  another  work  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  in  the  same  gallery,  the  Saviour  soars  up  out  of  a 
stone  sarcophagus  in  the  foreground,  while  one  of  the  guards 
lies  screaming  beneath  the  cover  of  the  sarcophagus  which 
has  fallen  on  him.  The  other  soldiers  run  terrified  away. 
Perugino's  painting  in  the  Vatican  has  nearly  the  same 
arrangement,  with  the  addition  of  adoring  angels.  The  Re- 
deemer always  holds  the  white  banner  of  victory  crossed 
with  red.  So,  too,  we  find  delineations  of  Christ  appearing 
to  the  Magdalen,  a  subject  known  as  ''''Noli  me  tangere" 
Here  imagination  has  strangely  sought  to  reconcile  Mary's 


82  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

supposition  that  she  beheld  the  gardener  with  the  divine 
character  of  the  risen  Jesus.  The  scholars  of  Giotto  show 
him  shouldering  a  spade,  Raphael  adds  a  pickaxe,  a  gar- 
dener's hat,  and  a  halo ;  while  the  German,  Albrecht  Diirer, 
puts  the  sacred  banner  in  one  hand  and  a  spade  in  the 
other ! 

Early  Ascensions  are  more  simple  and  grand.  Angels 
encircle  the  blessing  and  departing  Christ ;  apostles  are 
ranged  below  in  different  attitudes  of  ecstasy  or  grief.  The 
Virgin  should  be  prominent,  with  outstretched  arms.  In 
Giotto's  fresco  at  Padua  angels  are  omitted.  The  cupola  of 
a  cathedral  was  often  chosen  to  display  this  subject. 

A  peculiar  composition,  styled  a  "  Trinity,"  was  popular 
in  Italy  from  the  twelfth  to  the  seventeenth  century.  We 
discover  it  particularly  among  antique  Florentine  pictures. 
The  Son  of  God  hangs  upon  a  cross,  just  above  and  be- 
hind which  is  a  venerable  form,  typifying  the  Father.  The 
Dove  of  the  Spirit  proceeds  from  the  lips  of  the  Father,  and 
touches  the  head  of  the  Son.  The  ends  of  the  cross  may  be 
held  by  angels, 

The  Last  Judgment  is  usually  thought  to  date  back  to  the 
most  primitive  Christian  ages.  But  in  early  mosaics  it  is  not 
the  Last  Judgment  as  an  historical  fact,  with  the  accessories 
of  the  righteous  and  the  wicked,  but  principally  Christ  as  the 
judge  of  the  world,  which  is  represented.  The  scene  of  the 
judgment  appears  to  have  been  first  depicted  in  some  sacred 
compositions  carried  about  in  the  ninth  century  to  convert 
the  heathen.  It  was  soon  after  introduced  into  sculpture  and 
mosaic.  By  the  Giotteschi  and  the  artists  of  the  Campo 
Santo,  as  well  as  by  early  German  painters,  it  was  occa- 


TRADITIONS  OF  PAINTING.  83 

sionally  executed.  We  shall  soon  find  it  terribly  and  power- 
fully delineated  by  Michael  Angelo  in  the  Sistine  Chapel. 

The  lives  of  the  apostles  have  also  been  illustrated  and 
embellished.  We  have  not  space  to  enter  into  details,  but 
will  merely  mention  the  attributes  by  which  they  may  be 
recognized  : 

"  St.  Peter,  the  keys  or  a  fish. 

"  St.  Andrew,  the  transverse  cross  which  bears  his  name. 

"  St.  James  Major,  the  pilgrim's  staff. 

"  St.  James  Minor,  a  club. 

"  St.  John — the  chalice  with  the  serpent  is  the  proper  at- 
tribute of  the  apostle ;  but  the  eagle,  which  is  his  attri- 
bute as  an  evangelist,  is  sometimes  seen  when  he  is  with  the 
apostles. 

"  St.  Thomas,  generally  a  builder's  rule  ;  rarely  a  spear. 

"  St.  Philip,  a  small  cross  on  a  staff,  or  crozier  surmounted 
by  a  cross. 

"  St.  Bartholomew,  a  knife. 

"  St.  Matthew,  a  purse. 

"St.  Simon,  a  saw. 

"  St.  Thaddeus,  a  halberd  or  lance. 

"  St.  Matthias,  a  lance. 

"  Sometimes  St.  Paul,  St.  Mark,  and  St.  Luke,  are  repre- 
sented with  the  apostles,  and  some  others  are  left  out,  as 
the  number  is  always  twelve.  In  such  cases  St.  Paul  bears 
either  one  or  two  swords." 

The  legends  of  the  Magdalen  are  a  treasure  to  art.  Tra- 
ditions of  the  Western  Church  insist  upon  her  identity  with 
Mary  of  Bethany,  and  go  on  to  tell  us  that  she  owned  a 
castle  on  the  sea  of  Galilee,  and  was,  with  Martha  and  Laza- 


84  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

rus,  descended  from  a  noble  race.  Beautiful  and  young,  she 
became  luxurious  and  dissolute,  and  was  possessed  by  the 
seven  deadly  sins,  which  Christ  cast  out  as  seven  devils. 
Many  Venetian  pictures  present  to  us  "  Christ  in  the  house 
of  Martha,"  seated  in  a  kitchen  whose  disorder  Martha  vainly 
seeks  to  remedy,  while  Mary  sits  tranquilly  by,  and  a  servant- 
maid,  "  Marcella,"  is  cooking  at  the  fire.  After  the  resurrec- 
tion, the  whole  family  "  were  by  the  heathen  set  adrift  in  a 
vessel  without  sails,  oars,  or  rudder ;  but,  guided  by  Provi- 
dence, were  safely  braught  to  the  harbor  of  Marseilles,  in  the 
country  now  called  France."  Here  they  preached ;  and 
when  the  people  were  converted,  and  Lazarus  was  made 
bishop,  Mary  retired  to  a  desert,  where  she  lived  for  thirty 
years,  in  fasting,  penance,  and  prayer.  Angels  came  and 
bore  her  in  trances  into  heaven,  or  watched  over  her  soli- 
tary death-bed,  and  carried  her  to  the  skies,  as  we  perceive 
in  the  paintings  of  her  death  and  assumption.  The  box  of 
ointment  is  her  attribute ;  disheveled  golden  hair  and  very 
scanty  drapery  fix  her  identity.  Every  valuable  art-col- 
lection in  Europe  has  one  or  more  of  these  lovely,  but  not 
always  repentant,  Magdalens ;  none  is  more  exquisitely  fair 
than  that  by  Correggio  at  Dresden. 

Neither  can  the  early  fathers  or  saints  complain  of  being 
neglected  in  art.  Very  often  we  encounter  St.  Jerome,  the 
great  doctor  of  the  Church,  and  the  first  Western  monk, 
whom  we  recognize  by  his  usual  robe  of  red,  and  his  pet  lion. 
He  is  frequently  clad  as  a  cardinal,  and  takes  his  place 
among  other  dignitaries ;  yet  we  see  him  again  as  a  hermit 
in  the  wilderness,  to  which  he  often  retreated  when  wearied 
with  the  tumults  of  the  Church  and  the  world,  translating  the 


TRADITIONS  OF  PAINTING.  85 

Bible,  or  engaged  in  djevotion.  The  accompanying  lion  prob- 
ably symbolizes  his  fiery,  enthusiastic  nature ;  but  tradition 
preserves  the  tale  of  a  lion  from  whose  foot  he  extracted  a 
thorn  with  such  skill  and  tenderness  that  the  grateful  creat- 
ure would  never  leave  him. 

St.  Augustine  and  St.  Gregory  are  similarly  commemo- 
rated. They  are,  however,  less  common  than  St.  Christopher, 
"  the  Christ-Bearer  " — the  old  giant  who  had  been  employed 
by  many  masters,  but  who  was  always  seeking  the  service  of 
the  strongest,  and  desired  to  make  himself  acceptable  to 
Jesus  Christ,  though  it  was  not  in  his  line  to  fast  or  pray. 
A  holy  hermit  bade  him  dwell  near  a  river  that  he  might  aid 
such  as  must  struggle  with  the  stream.  One  night  he  heard 
the  voice  of  a  little  child  who  called,  "  Come  forth,  Christo- 
pher, and  carry  me  over."  And,  as  the  child  was  very  small, 
he  took  him  on  his  shoulders  and  stepped  into  the  stream. 
But  the  waves  and  the  winds  buffeted  him  sore,  and  the  babe 
became  so  heavy  that  he  could  scarcely  reach  the  land.  When 
he  had  gained  the  bank  he  said,  "Who  art  thou,  child, 
that  hath  put  me  in  such  peril  ?  Had  I  carried  the  whole 
world  on  my  shoulders,  the  burden  had  not  been  heavier." 
And  the  child  replied :  "  O  Christopher,  thou  hast  not  only 
borne  the  world,  but  him  who  made  the  world.  I  have 
accepted  thy  service ;  therefore  plant  thy  staff  in  the  ground, 
that  it  may  bring  forth  leaves  and  fruit."  And  he  did  even 
so,  but  the  holy  child  vanished.  And  Christopher  became  a 
Christian,  and  a  martyr  of  the  Lord.  At  his  death  he  prayed 
that  those  who  looked  on  him  and  trusted  in  Christ  "  might 
not  suffer  from  tempest,  earthquake,  or  fire." 

It  soon  became  a  custom  to  paint  his  image  in  very  large 


86  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

proportions,  sometimes  even  thirty  feet  high,  on  the  outside 
of  churches  and  houses,  where  it  might  be  seen  a  long  way 
off;  and  many,  beholding  it,  might  reap  the  benefit  of  his 
prayer.  Such  effigies  still  exist  in  Germany,  France,  and 
Italy.  As  a  subject  for  easel-pieces  or  engravings  St.  Chris- 
topher was  more  popular  in  Germany  than  at  the  South ;  but 
a  chapel  was  frescoed  in  his  honor  by  Andrea  Mantegna 
at  Padua. 

The  martyrs  St.  Sebastian  and  St.  Lawrence  also  become 
ere  long  well  known  to  travelers.  St.  Sebastian  is  usually  a 
nude,  youthful  figure,  bound  to  a  tree  or  column,  and  pierced 
with  arrows ;  St.  Lawrence  rests,  without  much  sign  of  dis- 
comfort, on  a  gridiron.  In  the  legends  Sebastian  is  a  Roman 
soldier  whom  neither  persuasions  nor  threats  can  induce  to 
abandon  the  Christian  faith.  He  is  therefore  sentenced  to 
be  shot  with  arrows  on  the  Palatine  Hill,  at  Rome.  His  sen- 
tence is  executed,  and  he  is  left  for  dead ;  but  the  friends 
who  would  bury  him  find  that  he  still  breathes,  and  through 
their  care  he  revives  and  lives ;  yet  only  to  be  seized  again 
by  his  enemies,  and  beaten  to  death  with  clubs.  Perugino, 
Luini,  Mantegna,  and  many  other  painters,  have  given  us 
his  story.  In  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  he  be- 
came the  model  for  masculine  beauty  of  form,  as  the  Mag- 
dalen for  sensuous  female  loveliness.  Guido  was  enthusiastic 
over  him.  St.  Sebastian  was  a  patron  saint  against  the  plague, 
and  one  of  the  ancient  basilicas  of  Rome  was  built  in  his 
honor.  A  similar  basilica  was  erected  to  St.  Lawrence  or 
Lorenzo.  St.  Lawrence  was  a  deacon  at  Rome ;  and  when 
commanded  by  the  heathen  prefect  to  deliver  up  the  treasures 
of  the  church,  he  brought  him  the  sick  and  poor,  saying, 


TRADITIONS  OF  PAINTING.  87 

•» 

"  Here  are  our  treasures !  "  Then  the  prefect  ordered  that 
he  should  be  tortured,  and  roasted  on  a  gridiron ;  but  his 
constancy  was  no  way  shaken,  and  he  died  in  glorious  faith 
A  series  of  frescoes,  ending  with  his  martyrdom,  once  orna- 
mented his  basilica.  Another  like  series,  however,  by  Fra 
Angelico,  may  be  seen  in  a  chapel  of  the  Vatican.  His 
single  figure  is  sometimes  found  in  galleries,  with  the  gridiron 
as  his  emblem ;  and  he  often  stands  in  company  with  groups 
of  saints.  The  Escorial  at  Madrid  was  dedicated  to  him  by 
Philip  II.  Of  St.  Francis,  so  beloved  in  the  middle  ages,  we 
have  already  spoken  in  describing  his  church  at  Assisi,  and 
it  is  therefore  unnecessary  to  repeat  his  legend,  which  art  has 
copiously  illustrated. 

Among  female  saints  and  martyrs,  St.  Catharine,  St.  Mar- 
garet, St.  Agnes,  and  St.  Cecilia,  are  most  frequently  met  with. 
St.  Catharine  of  Alexandria  was  the  daughter  of  the  half- 
brother  of  Constantine  the  Great  and  of  Sabinella,  Queen  of 
Egypt.  She  was  carefully  educated  in  all  branches  of  Eastern 
learning,  and'  in  the  philosophy  of  Plato,  but  knew  nothing 
of  Christianity.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  her  father's  death  left 
her  heiress  of  the  kingdom.  Her  subjects  were  discontented 
with  her  passion  for  study,  and  begged  her  to  marry;  but 
she  replied  that  she  must  first  find  a  prince  so  noble  that  all 
should  worship  him,  so  great  that  she  should  never  think  she 
had  made  him  king,  so  rich  as  to  surpass  all  others,  so  beauti- 
ful that  the  angels  should  long  to  behold  him,  and  so  benign 
as  to  forgive  all  offenses.  Her  counselors  and  her  mother 
were  utterly  discouraged  at  such  conditions ;  but  the  Virgin 
Mary  sent  a  hermit  to  tell  her  that  her  Son  was  the  husband 
she  desired,  for  he  perfectly  met  all  her  requirements.  She 
7 


gg  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

looked  upon  the  picture  of  the  Saviour  which  the  holy  man 
had  left  with  her  till  her  heart  became  so  filled  with  love  that 
all  else  wearied  her.  Then  she  dreamed  that  angels  pre- 
sented her  to  him,  but  he  turned  away  his  face,  saying, 
"  She  is  not  fair  enough  for  me !  "  Upon  waking  she  wept, 
and,  requesting  instruction  in  the  Christian  faith,  was  con- 
verted and  baptized.  The  following  night  she  slept  again, 
and  in  her  vision  the  Virgin  herself  led  her  to  her  divine 
Son,  who  smiled  on  her  with  favor,  plighted  his  troth  to  her, 
and  placed  a  ring  on  her  finger.  In  the  morning  the  ring 
was  still  upon  her  hand;  and  thenceforth  she  looked  upon 
herself  as  the  bride  of  Christ,  and  despised  all  earthly 
vanities. 

After  Sabinella's  death  the  tyrant  Maximin  came  to  Al- 
exandria to  persecute  the  Christians.  Catharine  argued  with 
him,  and  coufuted  all  his  philosophers ;  but,  refusing  to  sub- 
mit to  him,  he  commanded  that  she  should  be  stretched  upon 
four  sharply-pointed  revolving  wheels,  and  torn  in  pieces. 
But  she  prayed,  and  the  angels  of  God  came  down  and  broke 
the  wheels  into  fragments,  which  flew  among  the  people  and 
killed  thousands  of  her  persecutors.  Then  the  tyrant  caused 
her  to  be  beheaded ;  and  when  all  was  over,  angels  took  her 
body,  carried  it  across  the  desert  and  the  sea,  and  laid  it  in 
a  marble  tomb  on  the  summit  of  Mount  Sinai,  where  a 
monastery  was  afterward  built  above  her  revered  remains. 

Of  this  picturesque  tradition  many  painters  availed  them- 
selves. Eastern  artists  were  proud  of  such  a  saint,  and  she 
was  declared  patroness  of  learning  and  philosophy,  and  also 
chosen  as  patroness  of  Venice.  Ruined  frescoes,  illustrative 
of  her  fame,  were  discovered  in  the  church  of  St.  Francis  at 


TRADITIONS  OF  PAINTING.  gg 

Assisi,  another  series  by  Masaccio,  better  preserved  and 
restored,  exists  in  St.  Catharine's  Chapel  in  the  church  of 
San  Clemente,  Rome.  Francia,  Perugino,  and  the  scholars 
of  Giotto  and  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  perpetuated  her  mem- 
ory; and  all  Venetians  claimed  her  as  their  favorite,  and 
decked  her  with  splendid  drapery  and  royal  jewels.  A  wheel 
should  always  be  near  her,  to  indicate  her  martyrdom.  It  is 
very  conspicuous  in  Raphael's  valuable  "  St.  Catharine  "  in 
the  National  Gallery,  London. 

The  Marriage  of  St.  Catharine,  where  the  infant  Jesus,  on 
the  lap  of  his  mother,  espouses  her  with  the  nuptial  ring,  is 
excellently  depicted.  The  two  pictures  by  Correggio,.  in  the 
Louvre,  and  at  Naples,  convey  a  sufficient  idea  of  its  treat- 
ment. Another  very  brilliant  and  very  remarkable  com- 
position by  Paul  Veronese  may  be  viewed  at  Venice.  Titian 
also  painted  it. 

Her  Burial  by  the  Angels  is  charmingly  rendered  by 
Luini,  in  the  Brera,  Milan ;  but  we  are  better  acquainted  with 
engravings  of  this  subject  from  modern  German  paintings  at 
Vienna  and  Berlin. 

St.  Catharine  of  Sienna,  a  Dominican  ^nun,  who,  like  St. 
Francis,  traditionally  received  the  stigmata,  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  St.  Catharine  of  Alexandria. 

St.  Margaret  was  the  daughter  of  a  priest  of  Antioch. 
The  governor  of  that  city  wished  to  make  her  his  wife ;  but 
she  rejected  his  offer,  and  declared  herself  a  Christian.  She 
was  tormented,  and  cast  into  a  dungeon,  where  Satan  ap- 
peared to  her  as  a  frightful  dragon.  He  opened  his  mouth 
to  destroy  her,  but  she  held  up  the  cross,  and  he  fled  before 
it.  In  one  version  of  the  legend  he  is  said  to  have  swallowed 


9o  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

her,  but  she  came  forth  from  his  jaws  unhurt.  By  the  sight 
of  her  constancy  so  many  were  converted  that  it  was  deter- 
mined she  should  be  beheaded,  and  she  suffered  martyrdom 
in  the  fourth  century.  In  her  pictures  she  holds  a  palm- 
branch  or  cross,  but  is  identified  by  the  dragon.  Raphael's 
beautiful  "St.  Margaret,"  in  the  Louvre,  robed  in  blue  and 
carrying  the  palm,  is  one  of  the  sweetest,  purest,  and  most 
heavenly  faces  in  the  whole  realm  of  art.  This  saint  was  also 
represented  by  the  schools  of  Bologna  and  Germany.  In  a 
painting  by  Lucas  van  Leyden  she  stands  meek  and  calm, 
with  a  cross  between  her  folded  hands,  upon  a  hideous  mon- 
ster, whose  tail  twists  into  her  hair. 

St.  Agnes  is  probably 'the  most  interesting  of  the  early 
virgin  martyrs.  Churches  and  shrines  have  been  consecrated 
in  her  honor.  She  was  a  young  Roman  maiden,  whom  the 
son  of  the  heathen  prefect  of  the  city  sought  for  his  bride, 
but  she  would  not  yield  to  his  solicitations,  for  she  told  him 
she  was  affianced  to  the  Lord.  Sempronius,  the  prefect, 
ordered  that,  if  she  did  not  marry  his  son,  she  should  become 
a  vestal  virgin.  To  this  proposal  she  would  not  listen ;  and 
finding  her  obstinate  he  had  her  dragged  to  a  place  of  in- 
famy and  stripped  of  her  clothing.  But  in  answer  to  her 
prayers  her  hair  grew  long  and  shining,  and  fell  around  her 
like  a  golden  veil,  and  she  saw  a  white  and  radiant  garment 
which  she  put  on  with  praise  to  God.  The  youth  who  wooed 
her  was  struck  with  blindness ;  she  cured  him  by  a  miracle ; 
but  the  people  demanded  her  destruction,  and  she  was  led  to 
the  stake.  Yet  the  flames  refused  to  burn  her,  though  the 
fiery  heat  killed  her  executioners,  till  one  ascended  the  blaz- 
ing pile  and  slew  her  with  the  sword. 


TRADITIONS  OF  PAINTING. 

She  is  the  patronness  of  maidenhood,  and  her  attribute 
is  the  lamb,  although  in  the  mosaics  which  ornamented  her 
ancient  basilica  the  lamb  was  omitted,  and  flowers  were 
springing  at  her  feet.  Domenichino  frequently  painted  her, 
as  did  the  artists  of  Venice,  and  Andrea  del  Sarto,  who  has 
-  left  a  very  pleasing  picture  in  the  cathedral  of  Pisa.  In 
Northern  art  her  hair  is  fair  and  flowing. 

St.  Cecilia,  the  last  of  whom  we  shall  speak,  was  a  noble 
Roman  lady  of  the  third  century,  who  sang  and  played  on 
many  instruments  with  such  entrancing  sweetness  that  the 
very  angels  stooped  to  listen.  She  invented  the  organ,  and 
is  the  patron  saint  of  music.  She  converted  her  husband  and 
her  husband's  brother,  and  the  three  devoted  themselves  to  a 
holy  and  charitable  life,  till  the  Roman  ruler,  desirous  to 
secure  her  wealth,  accused  her  as  a  Christian.  She  refused 
to  sacrifice  to  the  gods,  and  was  borne  back  to  her  house, 
where  she  was  thrown  into  her  own  bath  which  had  been 
filled  with  boiling  water.  It  did  her  no  harm,  and  a  soldier 
was  commanded  to  behead  her.  He  wounded  her  three 
times  in  the  neck,  and  left  her  half  dead.  For  three  days 
she  continued  to  live  and  proclaim  Christ,  and  at  her  death 
directed  that  her  dwelling  should  be  turned  into  a  church. 
Her  body  was  buried  in  the  Catacombs,  and  afterward  re- 
moved to  the  present  church  of  St.  Cecilia,  in  Trastevere, 
Rome,  where  her  bath,  with  its  stones  and  pipes,  is  still  to 
be  visited.  When  her  coffin  was  opened  in  1599,  her  remains 
were  found  quite  perfect,  and  in  the  same  graceful  attitude 
now  copied  in  the  recumbent  statue  which  lies  before  her 
altar. 

In  the  Catacombs  was  discovered  a  drawing  of  a  half- 


92  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

length  female  figure  inscribed  with  her  name.  Mosaics  also 
immortalized  her,  and  we  have  seen  that  she  was  the  subject 
of  Cimabue's  early  picture.  In  Raphael's  famous  piece  at 
Bologna  musical  instruments  are  scattered  at  her  feet,  while 
she  ecstatically  pauses  at  the  sound  of  the  angels'  song. 
Moretto,  Garofalo,  Parmagianino,  Domenichino,  and  Carlo 
Dolce,  all  give  us  her  lovely  ideal  as  the  patroness  of  music. 
Older  frescoes  upon  the  events  of  her  life  once  adorned  her 
church.  Francia  decorated  the  walls  of  her  chapel  at  Bologna, 
and  Domenichino  illustrated  her  legend  at  Rome,  in  scenes 
which  portray  her  distributing  alms  to  the  poor,  crowned 
with  roses  by  an  angel,  refusing  to  adore  the  idols,  and 
wounded  by  the  sword  of  the  executioner.  A  wreath  of  red 
and  white  roses,  a  martyr's  palm,  a  roll  of  music,  or  a  harp  or 
organ,  indicate  her  character  and  history.  Even  modern  art 
retains  her  as  an  attractive  and  graceful  subject. 

If  the  brief  sketch  of  the  traditions  of  painting  which 
this  page  closes  has  roused  a  desire  for  further  investigation 
of  so  interesting  a  topic,  I  commend  my  readers  to  the  writ- 
ings of  Mrs.  Jameson,  Lord  Lindsay,  and  Mrs.  Clement,  from 
which  I  have  gleaned  many  legendary  materials.  Meanwhile 
we  shall  continue  our  study  of  the  masters  of  the  fifteenth, 
sixteenth,  and  seventeenth  centuries,  with  a  more  intelligent 
appreciation  of  their  works. 


ITALIAN  PAINTING— FIFTEENTH  CENTURY. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

ITALIAN   PAINTING   IN    THE   FIFTEENTH   CENTURY. 

WITH  the  fifteenth  century  began  what  is  called  the 
period  of  the  Renaissance.  This  word  "  Renaissance  "  signi- 
fies "re-birth,"  and  is  applied  to  the  different  style  of  art 
which  gradually  arose,  partly  produced  by  a  study  of  the  old 
classic  models  so  long  neglected,  but  still  more  by  a  close 
attention  to  real  life  and  natural  objects,  and  a  blending  of 
the  ideas  thus  obtained,  and  of  individual  conceptions  and 
individual  modes  of  treatment,  with  the  traditions  and  cus- 
toms peculiar  to  the  middle  ages.  This  change  extended  to 
architecture  as  well  as  to  sculpture  and  painting.  In  fact,  it 
found  in  architecture  its  widest  range,  and  grace  and  beauty 
were  grafted  upon  Romanesque  strength.  The  development 
of  art  which  thus  took  place  when,  being  firmly  fixed  on  the 
mediaeval  basis,  it  began  to  reach  freely  in  all  directions  for 
new  ideas  of  beauty,  truth,  and  progress,  culminated  in  the 
following  century  with  the  maturity  of  Michael  Angelo  and 
Raphael;  but  meanwhile  it  is  very  interesting  to  notice  the 
mixture  of  quaintness  and  originality,  formalism  and  fresh- 
ness, in  the  artists  who  come  between.  Some  cling  tenacious- 
ly to  the  old  methods,  and  suspiciously  turn  their  backs  upon 
any  temptation  to  "  free-thinking ; "  others  take  refuge  in  the 
"ideal,"  and  seldom  venture  beyond  its  limits;  others  pour 


94  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

their  new  wine  into  the  old  bottles,  regardless  of  the  fermen- 
tation of  public  opinion  thus  occasioned ;  while  still  others 
profess  themselves  so  enamored  of  the  "  antique  "  that  they 
would  give  their  figures  the  muscles  and  rigidity  of  a  statue 
rather  than  copy  a  living  model.  Yet  all  these  elements  con- 
tributed toward  the  results  which  we  to-day  enjoy. 

We  shall  also  perceive  that  not  only  the  scope  of  thought 
but  the  sphere  of  painting  itself  extended.  With  the  revival 
of  letters  came  a  knowledge  of  history  and  antiquity  which 
introduced  historical  and  classic  pictures ;  the  study  of 
mathematics  led  to  an  accurate  acquaintance  with  form  and 
perspective ;  portraiture  grew  much  more  common,  and  even 
the  beauties  of  landscape  were  imperfectly  anticipated.  The 
discovery  and  use  of  oil-colors  was  another  most  important 
advance,  though  it  was  long  before  distemper  was  quite  aban- 
doned. The  necessity  for  large  frescoes  in  architectural 
adornment  demanded  grandeur  and  boldness  of  conception 
and  treatment,  and  the  intellectual  culture  of  Italy  was  nobly 
expressed  in  art. 

To  such  culture  the  circumstances  and  influences  of  the 
times  were  extremely  favorable.  Florence  was  the  centre  of 
Italian  power  and  prosperity,  and  the  merchant-princes  who 
held  its  government  were  ever  ready  to  patronize  literature, 
learning,  sculpture,  building,  and  painting.  Rival  guilds  gave 
superb  orders,  and  paid  superb  prices.  No  magnificence  was 
too  costly  to  ornament  the  city ;  no  luxury  too  lavish  for  its 
festivals  and  palaces.  With  the  ascendency  of  the  Medici 
family  came  still  greater  liberality  and  still  greater  pomp. 
Talent  was  everywhere  recognized,  and  everywhere  recom- 
pensed ;  and,  though  morals  languished,  aesthetics  flourished. 


ITALIAN  PAINTING— FIFTEENTH  CENTURY, 

S  J 

At  the  commencement  of  the  century,  however,  this 
climax  had  not  been  reached,  though  the  appreciative  Floren- 
tines were  moved  to  enthusiasm  by  the  success  of  their  own 
young  sculptor,  Lorenzo  Ghiberti,  who  had  cast,  at  their 
request,  new  gates  of  bronze  for  their  splendid  baptistery. 
The  old  gate,  executed  about  1330,  by  Andrea  Pisano,  had 
been  thought  so  wonderfully  fine  that  none  could  ever  hope 
to  equal  it ;  but  this  youthful  Ghiberti,  who  had  been  edu- 
cated as  a  goldsmith,  surprised  his  countrymen  and  the  world 
by  master-pieces  of  art  so  perfect  that  Michael  Angelo 
declared  them  worthy  to  be  the  gates  of  paradise,  while  our 
present  age  but  echoes  his  judgment.  The  first  illustrated 
the  "  history  of  Redemption  from  the  Annunciation  to  the 
Ascension ;  "  the  last  represented  the  events  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament from  the  creation  to  the  reign  of  Solomon.  More 
than  forty  years  were  required  for  their  completion.  They 
were  modeled  in  most  florid  yet  most  natural  style,  in  very 
high  relief,  and  with  entire  conformity  to  the  rules  of  per- 
spective. Their  study  and  imitation  were  most  instructive  to 
the  rising  painters,  some  of  whom  were  Ghiberti's  pupils. 

Foremost  among  these  we  read  of  Paolo  di  Dono  (1396- 
1479),  known  as  Paolo  Uccello,  from  his  passion  for  birds. 
He  was  possessed  with  a  yet  greater  passion  for  perspective, 
and  practised  it  so  incessantly  that  his  wife  remonstrated  at 
his  unquenchable  ardor.  He  decorated  the  houses  of  the 
nobles  with  fantastic  fables  of  bipeds  and  quadrupeds,  and 
has  left  us  some  few  relics  on  the  entrance-wall  of  the  ca- 
thedral, and  in  the  cloisters  of  Santa  Maria  Novella,  Florence ; 
as  well  as  an  old  battle-piece,  now  in  the  National  Gallery, 
London.  He  is  less  familiar  to  posterity  than  his  contem- 


96 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


porary  Masolino  (1383-1430),  who  was  long  believed  to  be 
the  master  of  Masaccio,  and  the  originator  of  the  celebrated 
frescoes  in  the  church  of  the  Carmine,  Florence.  But  later 
investigations  prove  the  last  supposition  incorrect,  and  Maso- 
lino must  now  retire  to  the  obscurity  of  his  only  positively 
authentic  works  in  the  church  and  baptistery  of  Castiglione 
di  Olona,  not  far  from  Milan. 

This  but  increases  the  fame  of  Masaccio,  the  pioneer  of 
the  Realists.  He  was  born  at  Castel  San  Giovanni,  in  the 
valley  of  the  Arno,  near  Florence,  in  1402 ;  and,  though 
rightfully  named  Tommaso  Guidi,  the  lazy  habits  of  his  boy- 
hood were  amply  avenged  by  handing  him  down  to  our 
knowledge  as  Masaccio,  or  "Slovenly  Tom."  But  he  was 
certainly  no  slovenly  painter.  He  was  the  first  to  introduce 
intelligently  the  study  of  the  nude;  while  his  groups  are  at 
once  so  correct  in  proportion,  so  dramatic  in  action,  and  so 
excellent  in  perspective  and  color,  that  the  greatest  artists  of 
the  sixteenth  century  never  wearied  of  contemplating  his 
magnificent  frescoes  on  the  life  of  St.  Peter,  in  the  Brancacci 
Chapel  of  the  church  of  the  Carmine,  Florence,  repairing 
thither  like  pupils  to  the  studio  of  a  master.  He  copied  on 
every  available  occasion  from  real  life,  and  astonished  all 
spectators  by  the  vigor  and  animation  of  his  figures.  The 
"  Preaching  of  Peter,"  and  the  "  Presenting  of  the  Tribute- 
money,"  are  the  scenes  most  admired  by  competent  critics. 
In  coloring  he  was  accustomed  to  employ  "  transparent  tints 
over  a  white  undertone ;  "  yet  the  effect  was  grave  and  power- 
ful. He  also  planted  his  men  and  women  firmly  on  their  feet, 
instead  of  poising  them  on  the  end  of  their  toes,  as  had  been 
too  often  the  earlier  habit.  More  juvenile  frescoes  from  the 


ITALIAN  PAINTING— FIFTEENTH  CENTURY. 

history  of  St.  Catharine  exist  in  the  church  of  St.  Clement, 
Rome,  but  they  are  less  remarkable.  Panel-pieces,  such  as 
the  "  Head  of  an  Old  Man  "  in  the  Uffizi,  Florence,  and  other 
"  Heads,"  called  his  own  portraits,  in  the  London  and  Mu- 
nich Galleries,  are  occasionally  ascribed  to  him;  yet  their 
genuineness  is  uncertain.  The  manner  of  his  death  was 
mysterious,  but  it  is  thought  that  he  was  poisoned  at  Rome 
about  1429.  His  Brancacci  frescoes  were  unhappily  left  in- 
complete, but  were  afterward  finished  by  Filippino  Lippi. 

The  father  of  this  coming  Filippino,  whose  name,  Filippo 
Lippi  (1412-1469),  is  so  similar  to  that  of  his  son,  was  edu- 
cated in  the  monastery  of  the  Carmine,  Florence,  belonging 
to  the  same  church  for  which  Masaccio  labored,  and  had  the 
benefit  of  constantly  seeing  those  works  before  him,  which  so 
incited  his  progress  as  to  lead  many  to  affirm  that  "  the  spirit 
of  Masaccio  had  entered  into  the  body  of  Fra  Filippo."  The 
story  which  Vasari  relates  of  him  is  far  from  creditable ;  but 
Vasari's/  stories  must  often  be  taken  with  grains  of  allowance. 
It  is  said  that  to  escape  a  religious  life  he  ran  away  from  the 
convent,  and  fled  to  Ancona;  was  seized  by  pirates,  and 
sold  as  a  slave  into  Barbary,  where  his  master  was  so  de- 
lighted with  a  portrait  which  his  talented  captive  drew  of 
him  that  he  set  him  free,  and  sent  him  home  enriched  with 
many  gifts.  This  may  be  only  a  romantic  legend,  but  it  is 
certain  that  Lippi  subsequently  settled  at  Florence,  where  he 
painted  many  pictures  under  the  patronage  of  the  Medici. 
His  Florentine  career,  though  possibly  not  so  profligate  as 
has  been  represented,  was  by  no  means  ascetic.  Tradition, 
which  may  be  unreliable,  goes  on  to  mention  that  he  eloped 
with  a  nun,  Lucretia  Buti,  from  the  convent  at  Prato,  where 


98  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

he  had  been  employed  to  paint  a  Madonna,  and  was  finally 
poisoned  by  her  family,  in  revenge  for  her  dishonor.  But, 
whatever  may  have  been  his  faults  as  a  man,  as  an  artist  his 
merits  are  many ;  he  was  a  brilliant  colorist ;  firm,  free,  and 
graceful  in  outline,  and  eminently  cheerful  and  vivacious 
in  expression.  Yet  he  carried  his  realism  to  the  extent  of 
grouping  undignified,  fantastic,  and  even  sensuous  figures 
into  the  most  sacred  compositions ;  and  his  feeling  for  beauty 
was  so  much  stronger  than  his  sense  of  reverence  that  he 
never  hesitated  to  paint  the  Virgin  or  the  saints  from  the 
face  of  any  pretty  woman  with  whom  he  chanced  to  be  in 
love.  A  Madonna,  now  in  the  Pitti  Palace,  Florence,  is 
thought  to  be  the  portrait  of  Lucretia  Buti,  and  the  same  is 
probably  true  of  others.  His  best  efforts  are  the  frescoes 
from  the  histories  of  Sts.  Stephen  and  John  Baptist,  in  the 
cathedral  of  Prato.  He  also  worked  in  the'Duomo  of  Spo- 
leto,  and  several  easel  or  altar  pieces  are  preserved  at  Flor- 
ence, Berlin,  Munich,  and  London. 

Benozzo  Gozzoli,  or  Benozzo  di  Lese  di  Sandro,  born  in 
Florence,  1424,  though  drawn  by  natural  inclination  toward 
the  style  of  the  Realists,  was  yet  so  modified  by  association 
with  Fra  Angelico  that  he  presents  us  with  an  agreeable 
mixture  of  the  real  with  the  ideal.  He  loved  beauty  and 
splendor,  and  was  innocently  gay.  In  composition  he  was 
fond  of  architectural  vistas,  rich  landscape  backgrounds, 
gilding,  and  embroidery.  He  accompanied  Fra  Angelico  to 
Rome  and  Orvieto,  and  was  employed  in  a  number  of  Italian 
churches.  A  picture  of  the  "Triumph  of  St.  Thomas  Aqui- 
nas," once  in  the  cathedral  of  Prato,  now  hangs  in  the  Louvre; 
the  London  Gallery  possesses  a  large  Florentine  altar-piece, 


ITALIAN  PAINTING— FIFTEENTH  CENTURY. 

and  a  very  small  panel  of  the  "  Rape  of  Helen ;  "  while  the 
Riccardi  Palace,  Florence,  the  old  palace  of  the  Medici,  is 
decorated  by  his  "  Adoration  of  the  Magi."  But  none  of 
these  can  interest  us  in  comparison  with  his  long  series  of 
frescoes  in  the  Campo  Santo,  Pisa,  beginning  with  the  story 
of  Noah,  and  ending  with  the  Queen  of  Sheba's  visit  to  Solo- 
mon. They  are  unfortunately  injured,  but  gave  such  de- 
light to  the  Pisans  of  the  fifteenth  century  that  upon  the 
completion  of  the  work,  in  1484,  they  gratefully  and  unani- 
mously bestowed  upon  him  a  tomb  in  their  holy  ground, 
which,  however,  he  did  not  occupy  till  after  1496. 

His  friend  Cosimo  Roselli,  born  at  Florence  in  1439,  was 
a  pupil  of  Fra  Angelico,  but  far  below  Gozzoli  in  originality. 
He  worked  in  the  cloisters  of  the  Annunziata,  Florence,  and 
assisted,  with  other  Tuscan  artists,  in  frescoing  the  Sistine 
Chapel,  where  we  may  see  his  "  Destruction  of  Pharaoh," 
"  Adoration  of  the  Golden  Calf,"  and  "  Sermon  on  the 
Mount."  Of  Melozzo  da  Forli,  his  contemporary,  we  have 
but  slight  records ;  yet  the  grand  and  graceful  angels  found 
among  his  fragmentary  frescoes,  and  lithographed  by  the 
Arundel  Society,  prove  his  boldness  and  power.  He  seems 
to  have  painted  only  in  Rome,  where  he  was  knighted  by  the 
pope. 

We  now  reach  the  time  when  the  invention  or  application 
of  oil-pairiting  afforded,  both  to  Italy  and  Germany,  new  and 
wonderful  facilities  for  art.  Experiments  in  oils  and  various 
mediums  had,  indeed,  been  previously  made,  but  none  were 
practically  successful  till  the  brothers  Van  Eyck,  in  Flanders, 
discovered  how  oil  and  resin  could  be  so  simply  used  as  to 
supersede  all  former  varnishes,  and  avoid  the  old  and  trouble- 


I00  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

some  necessity  of  drying  pictures  in  the  sun.  Antonello  da 
Messina,  a  native  of  Sicily,  who  went  to  the  Netherlands 
about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century  to  study  under 
Flemish  masters,  learned  the  secret  from  Jan  van  Eyck,  and 
returned  again  to  Italy,  where  he  practised  the  new  method, 
and  communicated  it  to  the  artists  of  Venice.  Antonello's 
best  pictures  are  at  Berlin  ;  but  the  Academy  of  Antwerp  has 
secured  a  remarkable  "Crucifixion,"  where  the  two  thieves 
are  bound,  not  to  crosses,  but  to  tree-trunks  twisted  into  cru- 
ciform shape.  A  "  Bust  of  Christ  "  in  benediction,  is  in  the 
London  Gallery ;  a  "  Weeping  Nun  "  at  Venice ;  and  a  fine 
"  Head,"  small  and  dark,  in  the  Grand  Salon  Carre"  of  the 
Louvre.  Antonello  died  at  Venice  about  1493,  and  was  most 
honorably  buried.  A  painter  of  that  republic,  Domenico 
Veneziano,  was  called  to  Florence,  where  he  is  said  to  have 
instructed  Andrea  Castagno  in  the  mixture  and  use  of 
colors. 

The  character  of  Castagno  is  one  more  subject  for  "  his- 
toric doubts."  Vasari,  the  only  critic  who  has  written  of  him 
at  any  length,  begins  his  biography  by  a  short  dissertation 
upon  envy  and  murder,  and  lets  his  story  point  the  moral. 
The  facts  which  he  asserts  pretend  to  show  that  Andrea  dal 
Castagno,  born  at  the  close  of  the  fourteenth  century,  in  the 
province  of  Mugello,  being  found  to  possess  uncommon 
talents,  was  brought  up  as  a  painter,  aided  by  Bernardetto  de' 
Medici,  and  given  several  important  Florentine  commissions. 
Domenico  Veneziano  being  associated  with  him  in  those 
commissions,  and  treated  with  more  deference  on  account  of 
his  proficiency  in  oil-painting,  Andrea,  actuated  by  the  mean- 
est motives,  sought  his  friendship,  gained  a  knowledge  of  his 


ITALIAN  PAINTING— FIFTEENTH  CENTURY.       IOI 

method,  and  then  perfidiously  stabbed  him — a  deed  which 
earned  him  the  title  of  "  Andrea  the  Assassin !  "  But  other 
documents  have  since  proved  that  Domenico  survived  Andrea 
three  or  four  years  ;  therefore  this  theory  of  depravity  cannot 
be  sustained.  Yet  the  pictures  of  Castagno,  exhibited  at 
Florence,  though  powerful,  seem  coarse  and  unpleasing,  and 
are  generally  models  of  ugliness ;  as,  for  example,  his  "  Peni- 
tent Magdalen  "  in  the  Academy,  and  some  of  his  portrait 
frescoes  in  the  Palazzo  del  Podesta,  or  National  Museum. 

Another  Andrea,  in  another  city,  has  connected  his  name 
much  more  influentially  with  the  growth  of  Italian  art.  The 
Tuscan  school  had  thus  far  surpassed  all  others ;  but  the 
University  of  Padua,  which  was  foremost  in  the  revival  of 
classical  learning,  developed  new  tastes  and  new  aspirations 
among  painters  as  well  as  professors.  Francisco  Squarcione 
conceived  a  passion  for  ancient  sculpture,  and  made  the  tour 
of  Italy  and  Greece,  purchasing  precious  fragments,  and  tak- 
ing valuable  casts  and  drawings,  which  he  brought  back  to 
his  native  city,  where  he  founded  an  Academy  of  Painting 
and  a  Museum  of  Antiquities.  His  own  abilities  to  execute 
were  but  second  rate,  but  he  proved  an  admirable  teacher  of 
more  than  a  hundred  scholars.  His  generous  care  in  the 
education  of  Andrea  Mantegna  has  had  its  reward,  for  the 
honor  of  the  pupil,  has  been  reflected  upon  the  master. 
Andrea,  who  was  humbly  born  near  Padua  in  1431,  was 
adopted  as  the  foster-child  of  Squarcione  when  but  ten  years 
old.  This  affectionate  relation  lasted  till  manhood,  when 
Andrea  is  said  to  have  married  the  daughter  of  Jacopo  Bellini, 
Squarcione's  Venetian  rival,  and  to  have  thus  incurred  the 
bitter  enmity  of  his  benefactor.  Under  these  circumstances 


102 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


Squarcione  mercilessly  criticised  his  pupil's  work,  yet  the 
severity  of  his  judgment  was  useful  in  the  correction  of  earlier 
faults.  Mantegna  had  so  long  studied  from  statuary  that  he 
had  fallen  into  rigidity  of  attitude,  stiffness  of  composition, 
and  coldness  of  color ;  but  he  now  sought  to  overcome  these 
defects,  to  combine  classic  grace  with  classic  accuracy,  and  to 
catch  a  little  of  the  glowing  tones  of  the  Bellini.  In  this 
effort  he  succeeded  sufficiently  to  astonishingly  improve  his 
former  style,  and  to  secure  the  admiration  of  all  Italy  and  the 
imitation  of  many  followers.  Giovanni  Santi,  the  father  of 
Raphael,  who  composed  a  poem  on  the  artists  of  his  day, 
thus  writes  of  him  : 

"  Great  the  delight  it  gave  him  to  admire 

Mantegna's  wondrous  paintings,  splendid  proof 
Of  his  high  genius.  .  .  .  For  than  his 
No  brighter  banner  waves,  no  name  more  knowji 
Even  of  our  glorious  age." 

Yet  he  never  conquered  his  predilection  for  sculpturesque 
form  and  arrangement  of  pictures ;  he  could  not  display  much 
depth  of  feeling,'  for  his  nature  was  purely  intellectual  and  not 
at  all  emotional;  he  colored  and  composed  upon  scientific 
rather  than  natural  principles,  was  sharp  and  precise  in  finish, 
luxuriant  in  ornament,  dignified  and  refined  in  expression, 
realistic,  but  never  life-like.  The  frescoes  on  the  lives  of  St. 
James  and  St.  Christopher  in  the  church  of  the  Eremitani 
are  his  best  paintings  in  Padua.  About  1460  he  entered  the 
service  of  the  Marquis  of  Mantua,  who  gave  him  very  liberal 
orders ;  but  in  the  subsequent  sack  of  that  city  in  1630  most 
of  his  works  were  destroyed  or  carried  away.  The  traveler 
should,  however,  see  the  graceful  frescoes  of  the  Castello  di 


ITALIAN  PAINTING— FIFTEENTH  CENTURY. 

O 

Corte,  representing  the  life  and  family  of  Lodovico  Gonzaga. 
The  famous  cartoons  of  the  "  Triumph  of  Csesar,"  now  at 
Hampton  Court,  England,  were  intended  for  stage-decora- 
tions of  the  theatre  of  the  castle  of  Mantua.  They  are  in 
nine  compartments,  executed  in  water-colors  on  twilled  linen, 
and  were  purchased  from  the  Mantuan  collection  by  Charles  I. 
of  England.  These  compartments  show  a  superb  procession, 
with  standard-bearers,  statues,  and  armor,  trophies,  and  at- 
tendant captives  ;  and  lastly  the  conqueror  in  his  car,  followed 
by  the  triumphal  banner,  "Vent,  vidi,  via." 

While  at  the  court  of  Duke  Gonzaga,  Mantegna  accepted 
the  invitation  of  Pope  Innocent  VIII.  to  paint  a  chapel  in  the 
Vatican  ;  but  the  frescoes  no  longer  exist.  One  of  his  fine 
altar-pieces  will  be  found  in  the  church  of  San  Zerio  at 
Verona.  A  "  Triptych  of  the  Adoration  of  the  Magi,  the 
Circumcision,  and  the  Resurrection,"  and  also  a  portrait  of 
"  Elizabeth  of  Mantua,"  are  in  the  tribune  of  the  Uffizi,  Flor- 
ence. The  London  Gallery  contains  an  enthroned  "  Ma- 
donna," and  an  interesting  classical  picture.  One  of  his 
master-pieces,  a  "  Dead  Christ  bewailed  by  Angels,"  is  owned 
by  the  Berlin  Museum ;  while  at  the  Louvre  we  have  a  repre- 
sentation of  "  Parnassus,"  a  "  Wisdom  victorious  over  the 
Vices,"  a  "Crucifixion,"  and  especially  a  "  Madonna  of  Vic- 
tory," one  of  his  later  and  best  productions,  originally  de- 
signed in  commemoration  of  the  victory  of  the  Duke  of  Man- 
tua over  the  French. 

Andrea  Mantegna  was  not  only  a  painter,  but  an  eminent 

engraver.     He  was  the  first  artist  who  ever  engraved  his  own 

works  ;  and  some  of  his  plates  yet  remain.     His  last  years 

were  less  prosperous  than  his  youth  and  middle  life.     Family 

8 


I04  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

troubles  and  comparative  poverty  appear  to  have  afflicted 
him,  but  his  industry  was  still  great,  and  his  renown  perma- 
nent. He  died  in  1506,  and  is  buried  in  the  church  of  San 
Andrea,  Mantua. 

The  classical  style  which  he  so  affected  became  extremely 
popular  in  all  the  provinces  of  Italy.  The  Florentines  united 
it  with  what  was  fast  becoming  an  intense  realism.  Sculpture 
and  anatomy,  plastic  precision,  and  perfection  of  muscle, 
were  the  favorite  study  of  the  schools.  Many  were  sculptors 
as  well  as  painters,  as,  for  example,  Andrea  Verocchio  (1432- 
1488),  whose  main  interest  to  us  lies  in  the  fact  of  his  having 
been  the  instructor  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  There  is  an  anec- 
dote that  Verocchio  was  given  a  commission  for  a  "  Baptism 
of  Christ,"  which  he  treated  after  the  traditional  manner, 
affording  an  opportunity  to  Leonardo,  then  a  youth  in  his 
studio,  to  paint  in  one  of  the  kneeling  angels.  But  when  fin- 
ished Leonardo's  part  of  the  piece  was  seen  to  be  so  much 
better  than  the  rest,  that  Verocchio,  disgusted,  threw  away 
his  palette,  and  returned  to  his  statues.  This  picture  now 
hangs  in  the  Academy  at  Florence,  and  all  guide-books  are 
sure  to  point  out  which  is  Leonardo's  angel,  though  the  ob- 
server will  not  be  likely  to  discern  any  such  overwhelming 
difference. 

About  this  same  epoch  shone  a  galaxy  of  Tuscan  painters 
whose  works  foretokened  the  brilliancy  of  the  coming  masters. 
Signorelli,  Botticelli,  and  Ghirlandajo,  were  the  heralds  of  Da 
Vinci  and  Michael  Angelo.  Luca  Signorelli,  or  Luca  Egidio 
di  Ventura,  often  called  Luca  di  Cortona,  was  born  at  Cor- 
tona  in  1441.  Several  of  his  altar  and  panel  pieces  are  pre- 
served at  Cortona,  and  in  Italian  and  German  galleries,  par- 


ITALIAN  PAINTING— FIFTEENTH  CENTURY.       IO, 

»» 

ticularly  in  the  Uffizi.  He  was  employed  during  his  youth, 
with  the  most  promising  artists  of  Florence,  in  the  frescoes 
of  the  Sistine  Chapel,  Rome,  where  his  "  Moses's  Journey  into 
Egypt  "  and  "  Death  of  Moses  "  are  dramatically  and  forci- 
bly conceived.  But  he  is  seen  to  best  advantage  in  his  grand 
frescoes  of  the  "  Resurrection,"  "  Hell,"  and  "  Paradise,"  in 
the  cathedral  of  Orvieto,  begun  by  Fra  Angelico  many  years 
before.  "  Beneath  the  pure  and  blessed  figures  of  Fiesole 
which  look  down  from  the  vaulted  ceiling  the  powerful  crea- 
tions of  Signorelli  cover  the  walls  like  a  race  of  mighty  be- 
ings struggling  against  the  universal  annihilation.  In  the 
appalling  ferryman  who  transports  the  dead  across,  while 
various  naked  figures  are  wandering  along  the  shore,  we  rec- 
ognize the  idea  which  Michael  Angelo  subsequently  adopted 
in  his  '  Last  Judgment.'  "  The  devils  are  fiercely  strong  and 
horrible,  but  we  are  compensated  for  their  terror  by  a  most 
beautiful  group  of  angels  crowning  the  blessed. 

Though  Signorelli's  manner  of  painting  was  thus  severe 
and  majestic,  with  a  special  delight  in  the  nude,  and  in  active 
physical  development,  his  conversation  is  reported  to  have 
been  amiable  and  fascinating,  his  mode  of  living  sumptuous, 
and  his  attire  magnificent.  Lttbke  speaks  of  other  frescoes 
from  the  life  of  St.  Benedict,  in  the  monastery  of  Monte  Oli- 
veto  near  Sienna ;  but  they  are  not  so  deserving  of  attention. 
His  death  took  place  in  1523  or  1524. 

Domenico  Ghirlandajo,  or— not  to  rob  him  of  his  baptis- 
mal heritage — Domenico  di  Tommaso  Curradi  di  Doffo  Bi- 
gordi,  born  in  1449,  since  known  as  Ghirlandajo,  or  "the 
garland-twiner,"  from  his  own  or  his  father's  skill  in  fashion- 
ing the  gold  and  silver  garlands  which  women  then  wore  in 


I06  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

their  hair,  exhibited  still  more  strikingly  the  peculiar  genius 
of  Florence.  His  father  desired  his  son  to  become  a  gold- 
smith like  himself,  and  so  brought  him  up  for  twenty-four 
years ;  but  with  the  youth's  unusual  talents  a  transition  to  a 
higher  branch  of  art  was  natural  and  inevitable.  His  style 
was  not  so  muscular  and  mighty  as  Signorelli's,  but  he  de- 
lighted in  large,  free  compositions,  bold  yet  full  of  grace  in 
their  arrangement ;  embellished  by  portraits,  architectural 
backgrounds,  picturesque  costumes,  and  antique,  broken  dra- 
peries. He  was  very  ambitious,  and  often  wished  he  were 
able  to  fresco  the  entire  walls  of  the  city.  His  works,  which 
show  the  fruits  of  his  study  of  Masaccio,  are  well  finished 
and  exceptionally  pleasing  in  tone,  for  the  tendency  of  the 
age  was  to  glorify  form  and  neglect  color.  His  female  figures 
are  elegant  and  aristocratic,  and  Jarves  calls  his  angels  "ladies 
with  wings."  His  finest  frescoes  are  the  wall-paintings  from 
the  lives  of  the  Virgin  and  St.  John  the  Baptist  in  the  choir 
of  Santa  Maria  Novella,  and  from  the  history  of  St.  Francis  in 
the  Sassetti  Chapel  of  Santa  Trinita,  Florence.  In  the  most 
remarkable  picture  of  the  latter  series,  on  the  death  of  St. 
Francis,  we  may  perceive  "  an  old  priest  at  the  foot  of  the 
bier,  chanting  the  litanies  for  the  dying,  with  spectacles  on 
his  nose — the  earliest  known  representation  of  those  useful 
instruments."  Indeed,  all  his  compositions  are  crowded  with 
contemporary  portraits,  contemporary  buildings,  and  contem- 
porary landscape.  We  also  find  an  impressive  "  Last  Supper  " 
in  the  refectory  of  San  Marco,  Florence,  and  a  "  Calling  of 
Peter  and  Andrew,"  in  the  Sistine  Chapel,  to  whose  adorn- 
ment he  too  contributed.  He  was  an  enthusiast  for  mosaic 
work,  which  he  called" "  painting  for  eternity,"  but  his  repu- 


ITALIAN  PAINTING— FIFTEENTH  CENTURY.       Io- 

tation  rests  principally  upon  the  frescoes  just  mentioned,  and 
upon  his  excellent  easel-pieces,  such  as  "  The  Adoration  of 
the  Magi  "  in  the  Uffizi,  a  subject  which  he  frequently  treated ; 
an  "  Adoration  of  Shepherds,"  at  the  neighboring  Academy ; 
a  "Visitation,"  at  the  Louvre,  a  " St.  Lawrence,"  and  a  "Vir- 
gin with  St.  Michael  and  St.  Dominic,"  at  Munich,  and  a 
"  Virgin  and  Saints  "  at  Berlin. 

As  Ghirlandajo  advanced  in  life  his  works  advanced  in 
power;  but -while  yet  in  the  prime  of  strength  and  success  he 
was  cut  off  by  fever,  1494,  in  the  forty-fifth  year  of  his  age. 
He  was  the  teacher  of  Michael  Angelo,  and  probably  no 
master  of  that  period,  except  Signorelli,  was  better  calculated 
to  direct  such  a  scholar.  The  favor  which  he  enjoyed  among 
the  Florentines  was  afterward  extended  to  his  son  Ridolfo 
(1483-1560),  who  could  not  be  by  any  means  compared  with 
his  father,  but  who  was  popular  for  ready  and  fertile  inven- 
tion, and  willingness  to  carry  out  the  designs  of  his  patrons, 
the  Medici,  in  their  perpetual  processions,  shows,  and  festi- 
vals. The  best  examples  of  Ridolfo 's  manner  are  his  "  Mir- 
acles of  St.  Zenobius  "  in  the  Uffizi,  and  his  frescoes  of  the 
"  Assumption,"  and  "  Gift  of  the  Girdle,"  in  the  cathedral  of 
Prato. 

Sandro  Botticelli  (1447-1515),  whose  family  name  was 
Alessandro  Filipepi,  another  able  Florentine  artist,  appre- 
ciated by  the  Medici,  was  a  pupil  of  Filippo  Lippi,  upon 
whom  he  modeled  his  style,  though  his  tone  of  feeling  was 
evidently  sadder  and  tenderer  than  that  of  the  vivacious 
monk.  His  small  religious  works  vibrate  between  stiffness 
and  sweetness,  generally  inclining  to  the  former ;  but  he  was 
one  of  the  first  to  introduce  classical  easel-subjects,  as  in  the 


I08  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

"  Birth  of  Venus,"  rising  from  the  ocean  in  her  shell,  and  the 
allegorical  "  Calumny  "  in  the  Uffizi.  In  another  picture  in 
the  Uffizi,  an  "  Adoration  of  the  Magi,"  the  king  kissing  the 
feet  of  Jesus  is  the  first  Cosmo  de  Medici,  while  the  other 
two  kings  are  his  son  and  a  relation.  Two  of  his  groups  of 
the  "  Virgin  and  Infant  Christ  "  are  in  the  Louvre,  and  a  very 
few  other  specimens  in  the  great  German  galleries.  But  he 
appears  on  a  larger  scale  in  the  frescoes  of  "  Moses  killing 
the  Egyptian,"  "The  Extermination  of  Korah,"  and  the 
"  Temptation  of  Christ,"  in  the  Sistine  Chapel,  where  he  was 
likewise  commissioned  to  execute  the  portraits  of  twenty- 
eight  popes  between  the  windows. 

Botticelli  repaid  his  obligations  to  Fra  Filippo  by  educat- 
ing Lippo's  illegitimate  son  Filippino,  who  inherited  all  his 
father's  gifts,  but  added  to  them  a  more  virtuous  and  modest 
character.  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  think  Filippino  may  pos- 
sibly have  been  Filippo's  nephew,  and  not  his  son,  but 'it  is  a 
vexed  question.  Be  he  whom  he  may,  he  was  considered  so 
promising  that  the  important  task  of  completing  Masaccio's 
frescoes  in  the  Brancacci  Chapel  was  intrusted  to  him,  and 
most  admirably  performed.  "The  King's  Son  restored  to 
Life,"  and  "  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  before  the  Judge,"  are 
particularly  worthy  of  praise.  His  manner  is  realistic  and 
less  simple  than  that  of  Masaccio,  with  great  fondness  for 
decoration;  while  his  other  frescoes  in  the  Strozzi  Chapel  of 
Santa  Maria  Novella,  containing  scenes  from  the  acts  of  the 
apostles,  are  rich,  expressive,  and  warmly  colored,  as  are  also 
his  frescoes  in  the  Caraffa  Chapel  in  the  church  of  Santa 
Maria  sopra  Minerva,  Rome.  His  panel-pieces  are  not  so 
rare  as  those  of  Botticelli,  and  are  collected,  not  only  in  Con- 


ITALIAN  PAINTING— FIFTEENTH  CENTURY.       IOg 

tinental  galleries,  but  in  England,  where  a  "  Madonna  with 
St.  Jerome  and  St.  Dominic  "  and  a  glowing  "  Adoration  of 
the  Wise  Men  "  amply  illustrate  his  talents.  He  survived  the 
fifteenth  century,  and  died  in  1505. 

Meanwhile  the  school  of  Bologna,  so  prominent  in  later 
Italian  history,  rejoiced  in  the  birth  of  its  first  great  painter, 
Francesco  Raibolini,  "  II  Francia,"  b'orn  in  1450.  Like  the 
celebrated  Florentines  whose  biographies  we  have  just  re- 
corded, he  was  trained  as  a  goldsmith  and  medal-coiner,  and 
did  not  abandon  the  trade  till  middle  life.  His  earliest  work 
is  a  "  Madonna  and  Six  Saints,"  at  Bologna,  dated  1490  or 
1494.  This  was  followed  by  an  altar-piece  for  the  Benti- 
voglio  Chapel  in  the  church  of  San  Giacomo  in  the  same  city. 
This,  too,  was  a  "  Madonna,"  accompanied  by  St.  Sebastian, 
St.  John,  and  two  musical  angels.  The  execution  of  these 
pictures  was  such  as  to  delight  all  who  saw  them ;  their  soft, 
rich  color,  quiet  fervency,  and  holy  peace,  appeared  to 
breathe  around  them  an  atmosphere  of  sacred  rest.  Francia 
had  found  his  vocation,  and  henceforth  he  appears  as  one  of 
those  painters  ordained  "  by  the  gift  of  God,"  whose  mission 
is  to  bring  down  faith,  repose,  and  hope.  The  technical 
qualities  of  his  work,  purity  and  depth  of  tone,  delicacy  of 
finish,  finely-wrought  backgrounds,  and  serene  and  beautiful 
figures,  were  such  as  to  correspond  with  their  elevation  of 
sentiment.  He  was  most  successful  in  oil-colors,  but  has  left 
an  able  series  of  frescoes  in  the  church  of  St.  Cecilia  in 
Bologna.  His  works  were  eagerly  sought  in  Lombardy  and 
Tuscany,  and  have,  in  later  years,  found  numerous  pur- 
chasers. An  excellent  altar-piece  is  owned  by  the  National 
Gallery,  London,  displaying  in  one  part  a  "  Pieta  "  in  the 


!  I0          •  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

other  the  "Virgin  and  Child  with  Saints."  At  Dresden  is  a 
very  lovely  and  wonderfully-finished  little  picture  of  the 
"Adoration  of  the  Kings."  Every  detail  is  most  richly  and 
exquisitely  rendered ;  even  the  high  lights  in  the  foliage 
being  laid  in  with  gold.  Three  or  four  are  at  Berlin  and 
Vienna,  while  Munich  possesses  another  which  Mrs.  Jameson 
pronounces  the  most  charming  he  ever  painted.  "  It  repre- 
sents the  infant  Saviour  lying  on  the  grass,  amid  roses  and 
flowers ;  the  Virgin  stands  before  Jiim,  looking  down  with 
clasped  hands,  in  an  ecstasy  of  love  and  devotion,  on  her 
divine  Son.  The  figures  are  rather  less  than  life."  Many 
public  or  private  collections  contain  his  half-length  Ma- 
donnas with  the  Child ;  easily  recognizable  from  the  one  type 
of  countenance  in  which  all  are  cast — mild,  soft-eyed,  and 
devoutly  calm. 

As  a  man,  we  learn  that  Francia  was  no  less  attractive 
than  as  a  painter.  We  are  not  surprised  to  hear  that  he  was 
very  gentle  and  obliging,  and  had  great  nobility  and  earnest- 
ness of  soul.  Though  he  was  more  than  thirty  years  older 
than  Raphael,  the  two  became  sincere  friends,  corresponding, 
and  exchanging  sketches.  The  St.  Cecilia  which  Raphael 
executed  for  Bologna  was  sent  to  Francia's  care,  and,  so  far 
from  being  jealous,  he  received  it  with  enthusiasm  and  joy. 
The  time  of  his  death  has  been  disputed,  but  it  is  asserted 
that  state  documents,  which  speak  of  him  as  the  Master  of 
the  Mint  at  Bologna,  fix  the  date  of  his  decease  on  the  6th 
of  January,  1517.  Many  scholars  endeavored  to  imitate  his 
style,  the  most  talented  of  whom  was  Lorenzo  Costa,  of  Fer- 
rara.  His  son  Giacomo,  and  his  cousin  Giulio,  were  also 
artists,  and  their  pictures  are  occasionally  attributed  to  him. 


ITALIAN  PAINTING— FIFTEENTH  CENTURY. 


Ill 


The  school  of  Sienna,  which  in  the  fourteenth  century 
displayed  such  promise  and  aspiration,  had  nevertheless  dis- 
appointed the  expectations  of  the  age.  Depending  only  upon 
sentiment  and  tradition,  it  had  refused  to  appropriate  the 
new  vitality  and  thought  which  were  inspiring  the  Floren- 
tines, and  so  had  worn  out  its  own  fervor.  Nobody  appeared 
to  revive  its  declining  power  till  the  time  of  Sodoma,  whom 
we  cannot  yet  notice,  as  he  was  rather  the  contemporary  of 
Michael  Angelo  and  Raphael.  But  the  religious  element  so 
strongly  pervading  Siennese  art,  and  so  natural  to  a  region 
familiar  with  the  story  and  spirit  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi, 
found  other  interpreters  and  a  fresh  home  in  Umbria,  whose 
painters  were  slowly  rising  into  repute.  Oderisio,  of  Gubbio, 
had,  in  the  days  of  Giotto  and  Dante,  distinguished  himself  by 
his  miniatures;  Guido  Palmerucci  had  labored,  about  1300, 
upon  frescoes,  now  dilapidated,  which  exhibit  the  long,  slen- 
der bodies,  small  heads,  and  ill-drawn  hands  of  the  period. 
Other  artists  of  Gubbio  continued  their  feeble  though  deli- 
cate efforts,  only  to  give  place  to  Ottaviano  Nelli,  whose  best 
wall-pieces  have  perished ;  and  to  the  brilliancy  of  Gentile 
da  Fabriano,  an  inhabitant  of  the  adjacent  town  of  Fabriano. 

This  Gentile  di  Nicolo  di  Giovanni  Massi,  whom  some 
consider  Fra  Angelico's  pupil,  was  no  saintly  ascetic,  but  a 
gay,  genial,  romantic,  and  accomplished  person,  whose  char- 
acter was  reflected  in  his  painting.  Born  about  1370,  his 
successful  career  of  eighty  years  was  by  no  means  confined 
to  Umbria,  but  was  passed  in  different  cities  of  Italy.  He 
was  highly  esteemed  in  Venice,  where  he  worked  in  the  hall 
of  the  Grand  Council,  and  became  the  teacher  of  Jacopo 
Bellini,  the  founder  of  the  Venetian  school.  His  coloring 


112 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


was  rich  and  splendid,  and  profusely  heightened  by  golden 
ornament.  Much  admiration  has  been  expressed  for  him  by 
the  masters  of  Italy  and  Flanders.  Michael  Angelo  is  re- 
ported to  have  remarked  that  his  hand  in  painting  resembled 
his  name.  His  frescoes  have  perished,  though  a  "  Madonna 
with  St.  Catharine  "  in  the  cathedral  of  Orvieto  is  still  attrib- 
uted to  him.  Some  of  his  panel-pictures  are  found  in  Ber- 
lin, Milan,  Fabriano,  and  Florence ;  but  the  Florentine  Acad- 
emy of  Fine  Arts  possesses  his  chef-d'oeuvre,  an  "  Adoration 
of  the  Magi,"  which  introduces  his  own  portrait,  and  of 
which  Jarves  says : 

"  The  landscape  of  this  picture  is  filled  with  every  thing 
pleasant  to  gaze  upon.  A  magnificent  sweep  of  sunlit  hills, 
distant,  peaceful  sea,  flourishing  cities,  and  signs  of  stirring, 
prosperous  life,  occupy  the  background.  Far  off  begins  the 
journey  of  the  Magi,  whose  retinue  winds  among  flowers, 
forests,  and  trees  laden  with  luscious  fruit,  until  it  reaches 
the  foreground,  where  the  kings  dismount  before  the  Virgin 
Mother  to  offer  their  gifts  and  to  worship.  They  have  come 
in  truly  royal  guise,  as  Christian  knights,  bringing  with  them 
those  mediaeval  appendages  of  rank,  dwarfs,  monkeys,  and 
dogs;  horses  richly  caparisoned,  a  train  of  animals  laden 
with  presents,  and  comely  young  men.  But  the  eye  centres 
on  those  handsome  kings,  resplendent  in  attire,  whose  pride 
of  rank  and  condition  fits  them  most  gracefully,  and  whose 
countenances,  as  they  adore  the  infant  Saviour,  are  lighted 
up  as  by  a  prophetic  consciousness  of  the  incoming  triumph 
of  the  new  faith  thus  ushered  upon  earth  through  the  instru- 
mentality of  heaven." 

As  Gentile  da  Fabriano  had  been  in  many  ways  a  debtor 


ITALIAN  PAINTING— FIFTEENTH  CENTURY.       Ir- 

o 

to  Fra  Angelico,  so  Nicolo  Alunno,  of  Foligno,  was  thrown 
into  contact  with  Benozzo  Gozzoli,  and  then  became  the 
predecessor,  or  possibly  the  master,  of  Perugino,  who  was  in 
turn  the  instructor  of  Raphael.  Thus  we  see  how  the  schools 
of  Italy,  spite  of  their  different  characteristics,  link  together, 
and  fuse  each  other's  merits  into  common  beauties. 

The  style  of  Alunno  is  usually  judged  by  the  altar-pieces 
and  Madonna  preserved  in  Rome,  in  the  Vatican  and  the 
Colonna  Gallery.  These  are  antique  and  reverent  in  treat- 
ment, somewhat  rigid  in  form,  and  subdued  rather  than  in- 
tense in  expression.  He  painted  in  distemper,  with  deep- 
brown  shading,  and  loved  to  embody  the  old  conception  of 
angels  hovering  about  the  crucifixion,  catching  the  sacred 
blood-drops  in  their  holy  cups.  Better  altar-pieces  hang  in 
the  Brera  Gallery,  Milan,  and  in  the  church  of  Santa  Maria 
Nuova,  Perugia.  The  announcing  angel  appearing  to  Mary, 
in  the  latter  composition,  "  with  crisp,  wavy  hair  bound  by  a 
crimson  cincture,"  is  particularly  graceful. 

Pietro  Vanucci,  or,  as  we  call  him,  Perugino,  born  in  the 
village  of  Citta  della  Pieva,  in  1446,  is,  however,  the  true 
exponent  of  the  Umbrian  ideal.  The  name  of  Perugino  was 
not  given  him  till  he  had  reached  maturity,  and  been  made 
a  citizen  of  Perugia.  His  father  was  a  respectable  peasant, 
but,  having  several  children  to  support,  sent  this  little  son,  at 
nine  years  old,  to  be  articled  to  a  painter  of  Perugia,  who, 
though  not  of  much  ability  himself,  had  the  good  sense  to 
advise  all  his  pupils  to  study  at  Florence  as  soon  as  circum- 
stances would  permit.  To  Florence,  therefore,  Pietro  event- 
ually bent  his  steps,  though  so  poor  that  he  was  obliged  to 
sleep  in  a  chest  instead  of  a  bed.  There  he  was  admitted  to 


II4  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

the  studio  of  Verrochio,  the  teacher  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci, 
and  had  every  opportunity  to  study  the  masterly  frescoes 
with  which  the  city  abounded.  His  friend  Leonardo  doubt- 
less fixed  his  attention  upon  perspective,  and  scientific  rules^ 
of  composition,  while  both  indulged  their  natural  inclination 
toward  pure,  harmonious  color,  fineness  of  touch,  and  smooth- 
ness of  finish.  Some  pictures  at  Perugia,  and  a  panel  of  the 
"Virgin  and  Child"  in  the  Louvre,  painted  in  tempera,  are 
among  his  early  labors,  and  already  illustrate  his  peculiarities. 
The  Virgin,  gorgeously  dressed  and  attended  by  richly-ap- 
pareled saints  and  meditative  angels,  sits  in  innocent  calm- 
ness "  on  a  throne  partitioned  off  from  a  pleasant  wilderness 
by  parapets  of  stone."  Every  tint  is  bright  and  fair;  every 
shadow  soft  and  warm.  Here  we  have  an  example  of  all  his 
future  method.  Dreamy  gentleness,  elegant  tranquillity,  re- 
fined and  often  melancholy  mysticism,  with  slender  shapes, 
nun-like  placidity  of  faces,  pure  color,  and  great  precision 
and  elaboration  of  detail,  were  its  main  features.  It  is  very 
difficult  to  reconcile  this  spirituality  of  style  in  Perugino  the 
artist,  with  the  appearance  and  reported  character  of  Peru- 
gino the  man.  His  portrait  in  the  Uffizi  shows  us  "  a  plump 
countenance,  with  small,  dark  eyes  under  a  fleshy  brow ;  a 
short  but  well-cut  nose,  and  sensual  lips;  broad  cheeks,  a 
bull-neck,  and  bushy  frizzled  hair" — while  his  biographers 
unite  in  their  testimony  to  the  moral  defects  of  his  later 
years. 

Between  1480  and  1486  Perugino  was  employed  by  Pope 
Sixtus  in  the  Sistine  Chapel,  where  he  was  assisted  by  his 
friend  Pinturrichio.  Many  of  his  frescoes  have  been  since 
effaced,  but  the  "Moses  and  Zipporah,"  the  "Baptism  of 


ITALIAN  PAINTING— FIFTEENTH  CENTURY.       IIs; 

Christ,"  and  "  Delivery  of  the  Keys  to  Peter,"  remain.  After 
the  completion  of  the  chapel  in  1486  he  returned  to  Florence, 
and  by  1492  had  abandoned  his  previous  practice  of  dis- 
temper, and  habituated  himself  to  the  use  of  oils.  One  of 
his  successful  attempts  with  the  new  medium  was  the  "  Pieta," 
now  in  the  Academy  of  Arts,  though  this  does  not  equal  the 
"  Pieta  "  of  the  following  year  which  we  may  admire  in  the 
Pitti.  After  the  death  of  Lorenzo  de  Medici,  Perugino  re- 
moved to  Perugia,  where  he  was  commissioned  to  prepare 
elaborate  frescoes  for  the  Audience  Hall  of  the  Guild  of  the 
Cambio.  Here  we  see  the  "  Nativity,"  the  "  Transfiguration," 
the  "Triumph  of  Religion,"  and  the  "Cardinal  Virtues," 
with  classical  ceiling-designs  painted  in  by  his  pupils  from 
their  master's  sketches.  The  artist  was  at  this  epoch  very 
prosperous.  He  married  a  young  wife  so  beautiful  that  he 
delighted  to  deck  her  with  rich  and  picturesque  garments; 
his  pay  was  certain  and  sufficient,  and  his  studio  was  thronged 
with  scholars,  among  whom  soon  came  the  young  Raphael, 
who  was  greatly  indebted  to  Perugino  for  his  early  style.  In 
fact,  all  who  will  observe  Raphael's  picture  of  the  "  Marriage 
of  the  Virgin,"  at  Milan,  cannot  but  remark  that  it  is  almost 
a  reproduction  of  Perugino's  painting  on  the  same  subject, 
now  in  the  Museum  of  Caen,  France.  The  arrangement  is 
identical — the  high-priest  in  the  centre;  the  group  of  Joseph 
and  his  friends,  and  Mary  and  her  attendants,  only  changed 
in  their  relative  position  from  left  to  right;  the  rejected 
suitor  breaking  his  wand  across  his  knee,  and  the  octagonal 
temple  in  the  background.  It  is  true  that  Raphael's  faces 
are  much  sweeter  and  more  expressive  than  Perugino's,  and 
his  high-priest  more  venerable  and  dignified ;  but  the  com- 


H6  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

position  is  so  little  modified  that  superficial  gazers  might 
even  consider  it  a  copy. 

Space  will  not  allow  us  to  catalogue  Perugino's  numerous 
works.  They  will  be  found  especially  at  Perugia  and  Flor- 
ence, and  in  every  important  gallery.  As  one  of  the  most 
celebrated,  we  may  mention  the  "  Resurrection  "  of  the  Vati- 
can, where  Christ,  with  his  banner  and  an  almond-shaped 
aureole,  is  soaring  from  a  sarcophagus  placed  conspicuously 
in  the  midst  of  a  landscape.  Three  sleeping  guards  sit  near 
the  tomb,  while  one  awakened  soldier  flies  terrified  away. 
Tradition  describes  the  latter  as  the  portrait  of  Perugino,  and 
gives  to  the  slumbering  watchman  on  the  right  the  likeness 
of  Raphael ;  but  the  spectator  can  only  imagine  such  resem- 
blances. Yet  this  picture  cannot  equal  the  triptych  of  the 
"  Madonna  adoring  the  Child,  with  the  Archangel  Michael  on 
one  side,  and  the  Archangel  Raphael  leading  Tobit,"  on  the 
other,  painted  for  the  Certosa  of  Pavia,  but  now  transferred 
to  the  London  Gallery.  Its  coloring  is  surpassingly  brill- 
iant and  tender,  and  its  sentiment  simple,  tranquil,  and  holy. 
A  duplicate  of  the  central  part  hangs  in  the  Pitti  Palace, 
Florence. 

The  Florence  Academy  retains  another  excellent  altar- 
piece  of  the  "  Assumption  of  the  Virgin,"  from  the  con- 
vent of  Vallambrosa.  The  Belvedere,  Vienna,  possesses, 
among  other  specimens,  a  "  Madonna  and  Saints,"  one  of  his 
first  efforts  in  oil-painting;  while  the  Pinakothek,  Munich, 
best  represents  him  in  the  "  Appearance  of  the  Virgin  to  St. 
Bernard."  For  his  native  town,  Citta  della  Pieva,  he  exe- 
cuted a  fresco  of  the  "  Adoration  of  the  Magi,"  which  has 
been  chromo-lithographed  by  the  Arundel  Society,  as  has 


ADORATION  OF  THE  VIRGIN  (Perugino). 


p.  ii 6. 


ITALIAN  PAINTING— FIFTEENTH  CENTURY.        II? 

also  a  "  Crucifixion  "  from  Santa  Maria  Maddalena  de  Pazzi, 
of  much  earlier  date. 

In  1507  he  was  invited  to  Rome  by  Julius  II.  to  fresco 
the  Stanza  dell'  Incendio  del  Borgo  of  the  Vatican.  But, 
upon  acquaintance  with  Raphael,  the  unceremonious  pope 
coolly  ordered  Perugino's  work  to  be  obliterated  and  renewed 
by  his  more  gifted  scholar.  Raphael  endeavored  to  soothe 
his  mortification  by  leaving  the  ceiling  medallions,  which  por- 
tray the  Eternal  Father  in  various  attitudes  and  glories ;  but 
Perugino's  star  was  on  the  wane.  The  advance  of  age  in- 
creased his  avarice  and  decreased  his  power.  He  constantly 
repeated  himself,  produced  picture  after  picture  of  inferior 
quality,  or  sold  the  hasty  copies  of  his  scholars  as  his  own. 
Not  only  do  historians  describe  him  as  mean  and  mercenary, 
but  Vasari  even  accuses  him  of  disbelief  in  the  immortality 
of  the  soul.  Yet  he  undertook  only  sacred  subjects;  the 
one  exception  being  the  allegorical  "  Combat  between  Love 
and  Chastity,"  in  the  Louvre.  Let  us  hope  for  the  interests 
of  psychology  that  the  contradictions  of  his  nature  may  be 
harmonized  through  further  researches. 

Many  sensational  stories  have  been  told  of  his  refusal  of 
the  last  sacraments,  and  his  burial  in  unconsecrated  ground ; 
but  facts  appear  to  show  that  he  perished  of  the  plague  in 
1524,  and  was  so  hastily  interred  that  no  one  knows  of  his 
resting-place. 

His  early  pupil  or  assistant,  Bernardino  Pinturrichio,  of 
Perugia  (1454-1513),  had  died  some  years  before.  He  seems 
to  have  been  a  partner  of  Perugino,  accompanying  the  latter 
to  Rome,  aiding  him  in  his  labors  in  the  Sistine  Chapel,  and 
receiving  a  third  of  the  profits.  Indeed,  Pinturrichio's  most 


u8  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

popular  frescoes  must  all  be  sought  at  Rome,  as  he  there 
came  under  the  patronage  of  the  Borgia  family  and  other 
nobles,  and  was  employed  in  many  churches.  The  most  ex- 
tensive of  these  wall  and  ceiling  frescoes  exist  in  the  different 
chapels  of  Santa  Maria  del  Popolo ;  others,  much  modernized 
and  restored,  and  of  rather  dubious  authenticity,  are  in  Santa 
Croce  in  Gerusalemme,  and  the  Ara  Coeli.  He  worked  chiefly 
in  tempera,  with  many  Umbrian  characteristics,  but  with 
occasional  coarseness  of  feeling  and  execution.  Yet  he 
abounds  in  gilded  ornament  and  minute  detail,  though  with- 
out much  soul  or  tenderness.  His  figures  are  slight,  but  not 
graceful,  with  crisp,  luxuriant  hair ;  his  draperies  heavy,  with 
rich  bordering;  and  his  colors  sometimes  dark  and  some- 
times glaring.  Some  good  altar-pieces  still  remain,  but  the 
easel-pieces  ascribed  to  him  in  various  galleries  are  commonly 
of  inferior  merit.  One  of  the  most  interesting  is  a  small 
panel  at  Dresden,  called  the  portrait  of  Raphael  as  a  boy; 
but  though  the  picture  may  be  genuine,  the  likeness  is  prob- 
ably a  myth.  Yet  we  find  that  Raphael  was  on  friendly 
terms  with  Pinturrichio,  and  perhaps  assisted  him  in  the 
frescoes  of  the  Piccolomini  Library  of  the  Duomo  of  Sienna, 
portraying  scenes  from  the  life  of  one  of  the  Piccolomini 
who  became  Pope  Pius  II.,  finished  in  1507,  and  compara- 
tively well  preserved.  These  frescoes  were  undertaken  after 
Pinturrichio  had  changed  his  abode  from  Perugia  to  Sienna, 
in  which  city  he  is  said  to  have  died  of  hunger  from  the 
neglect  of  his  heartless  wife  Grania  during  his  last  illness. 

It  is  of  course  superfluous  to  observe  that  among  all  the 
successors  of  Pinturrichio,  or  followers  formed  by  Perugino, 
Raphael  holds  the  first  rank.  Yet  while  we  defer  him  to 


ITALIAN  PAINTING— FIFTEENTH  CENTURY.       Iig 

future  consideration,  it  will  not  be  inappropriate  to  briefly 
notice  his  father,  Giovanni  Sanzio  or  Santi,  of  Urbino,  an 
artist  of  very  respectable  abilities,  though  he  modestly  be- ' 
lieved  himself  unqualified  to  educate  his  son.  He  was  evi- 
dently a  man  of  earnestness,  refinement,  and  culture,  and  has 
left  us  a  poem,  full  of  generous  appreciation,  upon  the  art  of 
his  times.  His  paintings  are  quiet,  careful,  pure,  and  elevated 
in  sentiment,  but  often  stiff  in  outline,  and  weak  or  leaden  in 
color.  Lubke  thinks  the  frescoes  in  the  Dominican  church 
at  Cagli  his  best  and  most  attractive  efforts.  There  is  also  an 
"  Annunciation  "  in  the  Brera,  Milan,  and  an  "  Enthroned 
Madonna "  at  Berlin.  Travelers  through  Urbino  will  be 
likely  to  visit  the  house  which  saw  the  infancy  of  Raphael, 
and  will  there  find  relics  of  Giovanni,  especially  a  "  Madonna 
with  a  Sleeping  Child,"  painted  on  the  wall. 

No  records  of  Raphael's  fellow-pupils  need  cumber  our 
pages,  with  the  exception  of  an  allusion  to  Giovanni  di  Pietro, 
mentioned  as  "Lo  Spagna,"  or  "the  Spaniard,"  from  the 
country  of  his  birth,  whose  elaborate  altar-piece  of  the  "  Ador- 
ation of  the  Magi,"  mystically  treated,  in  the  Museum  of 
Berlin,  and  paintings  at  Spoleto,  where  he  married  and  re- 
sided, indicate  some  original  genius  and  much  imitation  of 
his  famous  colleague. 

From  this  digression  into  Umbria  we  return  to  Florence, 
and  the  favorites  of  the  Medici.  The  agitating  period  of 
Savonarola's  preaching  was  approaching,  and  no  better  de- 
scription can  be  given  of  the  times  than  that  furnished  by 
George  Eliot  in  the  novel  of  "  Romola."  The  readers  of 
that  story  may  possibly  recollect  the  character  of  the  misan- 
thropic Piero  di  Cosimo  (1441-1521),  the  scholar  of  Cosimo 
9 


I20  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

Roselli,  and  the  master  of  Andrea  del  Sarto.  He  was  still 
more  noted  for  his  eccentricities  than  for  his  pictures,  and 
would  shut  himself  up  in  his  room  undisturbed  for  days, 
eating  only  hard  eggs  which  he  boiled  by  fifties  in  his  glue- 
pot.  His  tints  were  raw  and  harsh,  even  when  he  aimed  at 
clearness  and  polish;  but  his  classical  paintings,  of  which 
there  are  fair  specimens  in  "The  Rescue  of  Andromeda,"  in 
the  Uffizi,  and  the  "  Death  of  Procris,"  in  the  London  Gal- 
lery, are  superior  to  his  sacred  pieces  at  Florence,  and  to  his 
"  Coronation  of  the  Virgin "  in  the  Louvre.  He  liked  to 
introduce  grotesque  animals  and  ornaments,  and  was  invalu- 
able in  preparing  triumphal  cars,  and  other  fantastic  novel- 
ties, for  carnival  festivals  and  processions,  but  is  utterly 
eclipsed  as  an  artist  by  Roselli's  more  renowned  apprentice, 
Baccio  della  Porta. 

"  Baccio  "  being  the  Tuscan  diminutive  for  Bartolomeo, 
and  "  della  Porta  "  having  been  added  from  the  circumstance 
of  his  dwelling  while  a  student  near  one  of  the  gates  of 
Florence,  we  shall  probably  recognize  this  painter  by  his 
monastic  title  of  Fra  Bartolomeo,  or,  as  he  is  simply  styled 
by  the  Italians,  "  II  Frate."  He  was  born  about  1469,  in  the 
small  town  of  Savignano,  not  far  from  Florence.  We  have 
no  detailed  narrative  of  his  youthful  life,  except  that  he  was 
soon  brought  under  Roselli's  tuition,  where  he  formed  a  close 
friendship  with  his  associate  student  Mariotto  Albertinelli, 
and  showed  such  natural  and  artistic  proclivities  toward 
"  sweetness  and  light,"  that  the  beauty  of  his  Madonna-faces, 
and  the  sunny  fervor  of  his  coloring,  won  the  approbation 
even  of  the  critical  Florentines.  Yet  nothing  of  these  years 
is  now  discoverable ;  his  first  extant  work  being  a  likeness  of 


ITALIAN  PAINTING— FIFTEENTH  CENTURY,       I2I 

Savonarola,  which  he  long  afterward  reproduced  in  the  panel 
portrait  kept  in  the  Florence  Academy.  This  eloquent  man. 
so  impressed  Bartolomeo  that  he  not  only  became  his  dis- 
ciple, but  testified  to  his  sincerity  by  burning  all  his  nude 
studies  and  worldly  designs  in  the  carnival  fires  which  the 
Piagnoni  (or  adherents  of  the  monk)  were  wont  to  kindle  to 
consume  the  earthly  vanities  that  hindered  the  progress  of 
his  followers  toward  holiness.  We  cannot  imagine  that  any 
of  Bartolomeo's  sketches  could  have  been  indecent,  and  must 
therefore  regret  such  precipitate  enthusiasm ;  but  his  appre- 
ciation of  the  ideal  being  more  intelligent  than  conventual 
strictness  approved,  he  took  pains  to  gain  a  knowledge  of 
anatomy,  and  sometimes  outlined  his  Madonnas  nude  before 
covering  them  with  drapery,  in  order  to  obtain  proper  form 
and  folds.  He  also  invented  what  we  call  lay-figures,  to 
serve  the  same  purpose,  so  jointed  that  he  could  arrange 
them  in  various  positions.  Before  the  persecution  of  the 
Dominicans  had  reached  a  climax,  Bartolomeo  was  commis- 
sioned to  fresco  a  "  Last  Judgment,"  now  exceedingly  dam- 
aged, in  the  cemetery  of  Santa  Maria  Nuova.  Here  his 
refined  feeling  improved  upon  past  conceptions.  His  Christ 
is  majestic,  yet  tender,  and  encircled  by  a  glory  of  very  love- 
ly cherub-heads.  His  apostles  do  not  attitudinize,  but  are 
calmly  seated  in  perspective  rows.  The  figures  and  gestures 
are  noble  and  gentle,  and  it  is  suggestive  of  the  sympathies 
of  the  artist  that  the  part  which  he  left  till  the  last,  and 
finally  abandoned  incomplete,  so  that  it  had  to  be  finished  by 
Albertinelli,  was  the  representation  of  the  condemned.  Not 
•hat  such  abandonment  was  premeditated,  but  the  arrest  and 
death  of  Savonarola,  which  just  then  occurred,  so  powerfully 


122 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


affected  his  mind  that  he  vowed  to  consecrate  himself  to  a 
religious  life,  and,  leaving  every  thing  behind,  was  received,  in 
July,  1500,  by  the  Dominicans  of  Prato,  and  in  a  few  months 
entered  the  same  monastery  of  San  Marco  at  Florence  which 
had  been  the  home  of  Fra  Angelico  and  Savonarola.  Yet, 
with  insight  rare  among  the  priesthood,  his  superiors  per- 
ceived that  the  monotony  of  the  cloister,  however  congenial 
to  his  temperament,  was  not  suited  to  his  talents ;  and  after 
four  or  six  years'  quiet  he  was  persuaded  to  resume  his  brush, 
painting  by  the  direction  of  the  prior,  and  for  the  profit  of 
the  order.  Two  little  gems,  of  the  "  Nativity  "  and  "  Circum- 
cision," at  present  in  the  Uffizi,  are  supposed  to  be  the  first 
fruits  of  this  renewed  activity.  These  were  quickly  followed 
by  the  much-restored  "  Vision  of  St.  Bernard  "  in  the  Acad- 
emy. His  old  friend  Albertinelli  was  engaged  to  help  him, 
and  thenceforth  the  life  of  the  gentle  friar  was  not  only 
tranquil  but  truly  happy.  We  see  his  affection  for  his  con- 
vent in  the  frescoes  with  which  he  occasionally  adorned  its 
walls,  particularly  a  touching  "  Providenza  "  in  the  refectory, 
where  the  monks  are  patiently  seated  at  an  empty  table,  till 
two  angels  hasten  forward  to  reward  their  faith  and  bring 
them  food.  But  these  examples  are  insignificant  compared 
with  the.  greater  works  which  were  ordered  far  and  wide,  and 
which  largely  extended  his  fame.  A  visit  to  Venice,  in  1508, 
influenced  his  coloring;  and  another  visit  to  Rome,  in  1514, 
perfected  his  style,  and  led  him  to  an  ampler  practice  of  the 
new  rules  of  composition.  Many  pictures  were  executed 
between  these  two  periods,  the  most  important  of  which  are 
a  "  Marriage  of  St.  Catharine,"  now  hanging  in  the  Louvrt, 
and  the  unfinished  "  Conception  "  of  the  Uffizi.  But  it  is  in 


ITALIAN  PAINTING— FIFTEENTH  CENTURY.       I2, 

his  later  days,  when  his  mind  had  broadened  and  strength- 
ened, and  his  touch  grown  firm,  that  we  find  such  master- 
pieces as  the  "  Pieta  "  of  the  Pitti— the  most  purely  beautiful 
Pieta  ever  painted;  the  "Presentation  in  the  Temple,"  at 
Vienna;  the  "Madonna  della  Misericordia,"  or  "Virgin  of 
Mercy,"  at  Lucca,  where  the  mother  of  Christ,  with  uplifted, 
beseeching  face,  intercedes  with  her  Son  for  the  suppliant 
crowd  who  are  sheltered  by  her  robes ;  and  the  grand  "  Res- 
urrection of  the  Saviour,"  and  seated  "  St.  Mark,"  which 
also  hang  in  the  Pitti  Gallery.  From  these  and  many  other 
specimens  we  soon  learn  to  identify  Fra  Bartolomeo's  pict- 
ures. Holy  without  absolute  unearthliness,  and  pure  without 
insipidity,  their  charm  is  enhanced  by  a  brilliancy  and  soft- 
ness of  color  which  suggest  both  the  splendor  of  Venice  and 
the  spirituality  of  Umbria.  A  glowing  but  not  gaudy  red  is 
their  prevailing  tone,  while  arches,  thrones,  and  canopies, 
contribute  to  the  effectiveness  of  his  backgrounds. 

Biographers  always  dwell  upon  the  intimacy  between  Fra 
Bartolomeo  and  Raphael,  begun  soon  after  the  former  had 
entered  the  monastery.  It  was,  of  course,  productive  of  much 
good  to  both.  To  Bartolomeo  it  gave  not  only  a  lively  im- 
pulse, but  much  active  knowledge  and  energy ;  while  it  so 
affected  Raphael's  manner  that  one  of  his  early  pieces,  the 
"  Madonna  del  Baldacchino  "  in  the  Pitti,  often  engraved,  is 
hardly  to  be  distinguished  from  the  works  of  Bartolomeo. 
The  friendship  was  sadly  terminated  by  the  death  of  the  ar- 
tist monk  at  Florence,  of  a  malignant  fever,  October  8,  1517. 

Another,  less  eminent  friend  of  Bartolomeo,  Mariotto 
Albertinelli,  has  been  alluded  to.  He  was  of  a  gayer  dis- 
position, and  versatile  though  not  profound  genius.  Born 


I24  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

at  Florence  in  1474,  he  too  was  instructed  by  Cosimo  Roselli, 
but  preferred  the  party  of  the  Medici  to  the  leadings  of 
Savonarola.  Yet  he  was  deeply  attached  to  Fra  Bartolomeo, 
and  gladly  assisted  him  even  after  he  had  become  "  II 
Frate ;  "  till  at  last  he  grew  disgusted  with  art,  declared  his 
preference  for  a  roving  life,  and  went  to  keep  a  tavern  !  After 
a  while,  however,  he  returned  penitently  to  painting,  and 
died  at  the  age  of  forty-one.  He  has  left  some  able  pictures, 
particularly  the  "  Visitation,"  or  "  Salutation,"  in  the  Uffizi, 
and  an  "  Annunciation  "  and  a  "  Trinity  "  in  the  Florence 
Academy. 

The  easel-pieces  of  his  contemporary,  Raffaellino  del 
Garbo  (1476-1524),  are  sometimes  valued  in  collections,  es- 
pecially at  Berlin ;  though  the  generality  of  observers  will 
be  most  interested  by  his  quaint  "  Resurrection  "  in  the 
Academy  at  Florence.  His  coloring  is  clear,  but  hard ;  and 
his  style  not  so  pleasing  as  that  of  another  Florentine,  Lo- 
renzo di  Credi  (i459~I537),  the  fellow-pupil  and  friend  of 
Leonardo  da  Vinci. 

Lorenzo  was  a  good  artist,  and  a  still  better  man ;  but  his 
sphere  was  narrow,  and  his  powers  limited.  He  bestowed 
much  labor  on  his  work,  finishing  with  such  extreme  delicacy 
that  his  pictures  are  sometimes  mistaken  for  Leonardo's ; 
though  the  invariable  expression  of  the  countenances  of  his 
Virgins  might  always  correct  such  an  error.  He  never  cared 
to  fresco,  but  attempted  only  altar  and  easel  paintings,  upon 
sacred  subjects,  having  cast,  like  Fra  Bartolomeo,  his  profane 
drawings  into  Savonarola's  bonfire.  His  favorite  theme  was 
the  "  Nativity,"  or  the  "  Virgin  adoring  the  Child ;  "  and 
very  charming  instances  of  its  treatment  exist  in  the  Uffizi 


VISITATION  (Albertinelli). 


p.  124. 


ITALIAN  PAINTING— FIFTEENTH  CENTURY.       125 

and  Academy  at  Florence,  while  a  fine  "  Holy  Family  "  is 
in  the  Borghese  Palace,  Rome,  and  a  "Madonna  with 
Saints  "  at  the  Louvre.  Indeed,  Di  Credi's  style  is  so  close 
an  imitation  of  Leonardo's  that  he  well  serves  to  introduce 
us  to  the  golden  epoch  of  Da  Vinci  and  Michael  Angelo, 
Raphael  and  Correggio. 


126  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

LEONARDO   DA   VINCI   AND   MICHAEL   ANGELO. 

ITALIAN  history  of  the  sixteenth  century  is  best  studied 
in  biographies.  Nowhere  are  the  political,  social,  and  reli- 
gious aspects  of  the  time  more  faithfully  mirrored  than  in  the 
lives  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci  and  Michael  Angelo.  Leonardo 
especially  represents  its  highest  type  of  intellect,  refinement, 
and  cultivation.  If  any  person  in  our  day  be  an  eminent 
artist,  scientist,  or  poet,  we  are  apt  to  lionize  him  as  a  re- 
markable genius ;  but  what  are  we  to  think  of  one  who  was 
so  admirable  a  mathematician,  mechanic,  engineer,  chemist, 
author,  architect,  musician,  and  sculptor,  that  painting  was 
regarded  as  one  of  his  minor  accomplishments  ?  Seldom,  if 
ever,  has  the  world  beheld  s\ich  a  combination  of  gifts; 
and  seldom,  if  ever,  has  it  beheld  them  so  fitly  embodied  as 
in  the  handsome,  high-bred,  reflective,  and  dignified  man 
whose  noble  portrait  of  himself  is  left  us  in  the  gallery  of  the 
Uffizi. 

The  life  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci  has  been  often  written,  and 
its  leading  facts  are  easily  impressed  upon  the  memory.  Its 
events  were  few,  its  industry  versatile,  its  experiments  pro- 
digious, yet  its  results  but  meagre.  What  he  was  seems 
only  a  hint  of  what  he  might  have  been ;  but  posterity  has 
appreciated  his  possibilities,  and  we  judge  him  rather  by 


DA    VINCI  AND  MICHAEL  ANGELO.  12~ 

what  he  could  have  done  than  by  what  he  actually  did.  A 
ruined  and  almost  obliterated  fresco ;  three  or  four  female 
heads,  smiling  mysteriously  out  of  their  dreamy  shadow;  a 
very  few  Madonnas  and  Holy  Families ;  the  enthusiastic  "  St. 
John  "  of  the  Louvre ;  the  unfinished  "  Adoration  of  the  Magi," 
and  his  own  portrait  at  Florence — are  the  only  paintings  of 
whose  authenticity  we  are  absolutely  certain :  yet  upon  this 
slight  foundation  is  built  a  fame  which  has  never  been  sur- 
passed and  farely  equaled,  and  whose  secret  must  be  sought 
in  the  quality  and  not  in  the  quantity  of  his  works,  and  in 
the  capacities  and  not  the  achievements'  of  his  intellect. 

Born  in  1452,  as  the  natural  son  of  a  notary,  Piero  da 
Vinci,  in  the  valley  of  the  Arno,  the  prospects  of  Leonardo 
could  not,  in  his  infancy,  have  been  thought  very  brilliant. 
But  Piero's  wife  was  kind,  and  had  no  children  of  her  own, 
and  the  boy  was  brought  up  in  his  father's  house,  so  pre- 
cocious in  beauty  and  learning,  so  active  a  rider,  dancer,  and 
fencer,  so  sanguine  and  clever  in  all  kinds  of  skillful  experi- 
ments, and  so  passionately  fond  of  the  arts  of  design,  that  all 
fear  as  to  his  future  fortunes  was  soon  at  rest.  It  seemed  a 
pity,  indeed,  that  the  great  and  discriminating  Cosmo  de 
Medici  should  have  died  when  this  young  genius  was  but 
twelve  years  old>  yet  talents  like  his  were  beyond  the  need 
of  patronage,  and  Florence  could  well  afford  to  spare  one 
artist  to  Milan  and  Northern  Italy.  No  princely  favor  was 
lavished  on  his  youth ;  but  his  father  took  him,  like  any  other 
art-apprentice,  to  the  studio  of  Andrea  Cione  or  Andrea  Ver- 
rochio,  by  whom  Perugino  and  Lorenzo  di  Credi  were  also 
educated.  Verrochio's  lessons  extended  to  sculpture  and 
perspective,  as  well  as  to  painting ;  and,  though  there  is  an 


I28  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

anecdote  of  Leonardo's  having  excelled  his  master  in  an 
adoring  angel  kneeling  beside  the  Saviour  in  a  "  Baptism  of 
Christ,"  yet  there  is  no  doubt  of  Verrochio's  ability  as  an  in- 
structor in  technical  methods  of  art,  however  dry  and  soulless 
he  may  have  been  in  execution.  At  all  events,  Leonardo  re- 
mained with  him  till  the  age  of  twenty-five,  amusing  himself 
at  intervals  with  mathematics,  natural  philosophy,  mechanical 
contrivances  and  inventions,  botany,  astronomy,  anatomy  ; 
modeling  heads  in  terra-cotta  and  wax  ;  studying  his  draper- 
ies from  clay  figures  covered  with  wet  linen ;  perfecting  him- 
self in  exactness  yet  softness  of  drawing,  shading,  and  relief ; 
till  his  style  became  so  entirely  formed  that  future  years 
needed  only  to  develop,  but  never  to  alter  it.  The  large  but 
uncompleted  "  Adoration  of  the  Kings,"  in  brown  color,  in 
the  Uffizi  Gallery,  is  supposed  to  have  been  executed  soon 
after  his  quitting  Verrochio.  But  the  most  famous  work  of 
his  early  Florentine  days  was  the  painting  of  the  shield 
known  as  the  "  Rotello  del  Fico  "  (from  rolello,  a  buckler,  and 
fico,  a  fig-tree).  This  shield  had  been  cut  by  a  peasant  from 
the  trunk  of  a  fig-tree  on  his  farm,  and  brought  by  him  to 
Piero  da  Vinci,  with  the  request  that  something  might  be 
painted  on  it.  Piero  handed  it  to  his  son,  with  a  repetition 
of  the  request.  Leonardo  conceived  the  idea  of  imitating 
the  traditional  shield  of  Perseus,  which  was  supposed  to  have 
been  ornamented  with  a  Medusa-head  that  petrified  all  his 
enemies.  In  order  to  carry  out  this  scheme,  he  collected  the 
most  frightful  reptiles,  bugs,  serpents,  bats,  scorpions,  hedge- 
hogs, and  all  noxious  animals  that  swamps  or  dens  could  fur- 
nish, which,  as  Vasari  says,  "  filled  the  room  with  a  mortal 
fetor ;  "  and  combined  all  their  hideousness  into  one  horrible 


DA    VINCI  AND  MICHAEL  ANGELO.  „ 

monster,  which  he  painted  so  vividly  and  appallingly  that  his 
father  fled  from  its  sight  in  terror.  Leonardo  was  quite  satis- 
fied with  the  effect  produced ;  and  Piero  considered  his  per- 
formance so  extraordinary  that  he  presented  the  countryman 
with  another  shield,  nicely  adorned  with  a  heart  and  arrow, 
while  his  son's  passed  eventually  into  the  possession  of  the 
Duke  of  Milan,  but  has  since  perished.  This  story  will  recall 
the  "  Medusa  "  still  to  be  seen  in  the  Uffizi,  which  is  another 
very  remarkable  production,  either  from  Leonardo's  own 
hand,  or  copied  from  a  lost  original.  It  is  simply  the  head 
of  the  Fury,  severed  from  her  body,  and  most  ghastly  in 
death,  with  the  hair  turning  into  serpents,  yet  with  a  strange, 
weird  fascination  of  beauty  amid  all  its  horror. 

Geometry,  architecture,  and  engineering,  appear,  however, 
to  have  more  fully  occupied  Leonardo's  mind,  during  the 
first  thirty  years  of  his  life,  than  either  sculpture  or  painting. 
He  proposed  many  daring  projects  to  his  fellow-citizens, 
such  as  lifting  the  baptistery  bodily,  by  means  of  levers,  to  a 
higher  level,  or  cutting  a  canal  from  Florence  to  Pisa ;  and 
invented  all  sorts  of  machines,  from  cannon  and  compasses 
to  tread-mills,  camp-stools,  and  wheelbarrows.  But,  not  find- 
ing this  likely  to  bring  him  much  honor  or  profit  in  Florence, 
he  wrote  a  singular  and  characteristic  letter  to  the  Duke  of 
Milan,  Lodovico  Sforza,  then  called  "  II  Moro,"  in  which  he 
enumerated  all  he  could  do  to  commend  himself  to  such  a 
patron.  The  letter  still  exists,  and  is  often  quoted.  He  tells 
the  duke  of  the  many  destructive  engines  he  can  contrive 
for  attacking  his  enemies,  and,  after  describing  these  as  the 
matters  of  importance,  adds,  as  trifling  items :  "  In  time  of 
peace  I  believe  I  can  equal  any  one  in  architecture,  in  con- 


I3o  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

structing  buildings,  and  in  carrying  water  from  one  place  to 
another.  I  can  execute  sculpture,  whether  in  bronze,  marble, 
or  terra-cotta ;  also  in  painting  I  can  do  as  much  as  another, 
be  he  who  he  may." 

II  Moro  was  evidently  pleased  with  this  prospectus,  and 
gave  him  an  appointment  with  a  fixed  salary,  at  a  date  as  yet 
unsettled,  but  supposed  to  be  1482  or  1483.  Vasari  declares 
that  the  duke  valued  him  chiefly  as  a  musician  and  an  im- 
provisatore,  and  that  Leonardo  took  with  him  a  charming 
lute  which  he  had  invented,  made  of  silver  and  shaped  like 
a  horse's  head.  So  accomplished  and  attractive  a  man  natu- 
rally became  a  favorite  at  the  court,  where  he  was  commis- 
sioned to  model  a  large  equestrian  statue  in  memory  of 
Francesco  Sforza,  Lodovico's  father.  To  this  he  devoted 
immense  pains,  but  worked  so  slowly  that  it  was  sixteen  years 
before  the  horse  was  finally  completed  in  clay.  He  began  by 
pen-and-ink  drawings,  made  anatomical  sketches,  engravings, 
and  designs,  which  have  been  more  enduring  than  the  monu- 
ment itself.  It  was  never  cast  in  bronze,  and  the  colossal 
clay  model  was  either  broken  by  the  French  in  1499,  or  after- 
ward destroyed  in  some  unknown  way,  while  the  sketches 
and  etchings  are  still  preserved,  and  have  been  photographed 
and  published.  All  traces  of  any  casts  or  statuary  by  Leo- 
nardo have  long  since  disappeared,  and  the  proof  of  his 
abilities  in  that  direction  is  supplied  solely  by  his  fragmentary 
drawings,  and  by  history  and  tradition. 

While  the  statue  was  in  tardy  progress,  Leonardo  made 
some  few  but  valuable  essays  in  painting.  He  had  so  studied 
the  beauties  of  expression,  particularly  in  female  faces,  that 
none  could  excel  him  in  the  loveliness  and  seductiveness  of 


DA    VINCI  AND  MICHAEL  ANGELO.  j-, 

his  portraits.  The  strange,  enchanting  smile  by  which  we 
have  learned  to  know  him,  was  already  one  of  the  peculi- 
arities of  his  style,  and  the  duke  soon  called  on  him  to  im- 
mortalize the  charms  of  his  many  mistresses.  The  Ambrosian 
Library  at  Milan  contains  two  likenesses  commonly  thought 
to  be  those  of  II  Moro  himself  and  the  fair  Beatrice  d'Este, 
or  else  of  Galeazzo  Sforza  and  Isabella  of  Aragon;  while 
"  La  Belle  Ferronniere,"  in  the  Louvre,  is,  if  rightly  named, 
another  lady;  beloved  by  Francis  I.,  and  termed  Ferronniere 
because  she  was  the  wife  of  an  iron-merchant  (ferronnier). 
The  same  sweet  calmness  and  dreamy  tenderness  are  more 
appropriately  visible  in  the  Virgins  and  children-  of  some 
"  Holy  Families,"  also  painted  at  Milan.  Depth  of  shadow 
and  melting  light,  roundness  of  outline,  and  most  minute 

4 

and  enamel-like  finish,  are  the  invariable  qualities  of  all  these 
fine  pictures,  imitated  over  and  over  again  by  numerous 
pupils,  whose  labors  are  confused  with  those  of  their  master. 
By  the  patronage  of  the  duke  an  art  academy  was  estab- 
lished at  Milan,  of  which  Leonardo  was  head.  For  this 
academy  he  wrote  the  celebrated  treatise  entitled  "Tratta- 
to  della  Pittura,"  which  has  been  translated  into  several  lan- 
guages, and  is  sold  by  booksellers  to-day.  It  has  450  chapters, 
and  many  excellent  and  suggestive  maxims.  He  remarks,  for 
example :  "  A  painter  should  never  imitate  another,  or  he  will 
be  called  the  nephew,  and  not  the  son,  of  Nature."  Or, 
again  :  "  A  painter  should  be  universal.  He  must  study  all 
he  sees ;  but  he  should  only  take  that  which  is  best  and  most 
perfect  for  his  work."  Or,  as  a  practical  hint  to  young 
artists:  "Contrive  that  your  figures  receive  a  broad  light 
from  above,  particularly  in  portraits ;  because  we  see  people 


I32 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


in  the  street  receive  all  the  light  from  above.  It  is  curious 
to  observe  that  there  is  not  a  face  ever  so  familiar  but  would 
be  recognized  with  difficulty  were  it  lighted  from  beneath." 
Multiform  manuscripts,  sketches,  and  literary  works,  were 
prepared  for  the  same  academy.  All  are  written  in  his  pe- 
culiar manner,  from  left  to  right.  An  enormous  folio,  called 
the  "  Codice  Atlantico,"  is  kept  in  the  Milan  Library,  from 
which  copious  extracts  were  made  in  an  admirable  work 
prepared  for  the  Italian  Government  on  the  inauguration  of 
the  Da  Vinci  monument.  This  codex  was  taken  from  Milan 
on  the  invasion  of  Italy  by  Napoleon,  who  was  so  delighted 
with  its  possession  that  he  carried  it  to  his  hotel  himself, 
exclaiming  with  enthusiasm,  "  This  is  mine  !  "  It  was  finally 
restored  to  its  proper  place,  but  twelve  manuscript  volumes 

• 

are  yet  retained  by  the  French;  and  many  drawings  and 
studies  of  Leonardo,  principally  in  red  and  black  chalk,  are 
in  the  various  collections  of  Europe.  The  Royal  Library  at 
Windsor  Castle  contains  manuscripts,  drawings,  and  a  number 
of  his  scores  for  music. 

But  the  crown  and  glory  of  Leonardo's  Milan  labors  was 
the  famous  "  Last  Supper,"  painted,  by  command  of  the  duke, 
on  the  wall  of  the  refectory  of  Santa  Maria  della  Grazia. 
This  is  his  true  memorial,  the  point  at  which  his  genius  cul- 
minated. Every  one  has  heard  of  its  past  history,  and  its 
present  ruin.  For  its  premature  decay  both  Lodovico  and 
Leonardo  are  responsible — Lodovico  for  insisting  upon  its 
execution  in  so  damp  and  wretched  a  building,  and  Leonardo 
for  experimenting  in  oil  mediums  and  untried  preparations, 
instead  of  employing  the  good  old  method  of  ordinary  fresco. 
It  represents  the  scene  of  the  Eucharist,  not  in  its  usual 


DA    VINCI  AND  MICHAEL  ANGELO.  J33 

phase  of  calm  repose,  but  at  the  dramatic  moment  when 
Christ  announces  his  approaching  betrayal,  and  each  disciple 
starts  fonvard  to  express  his  grief  and  horror,  and  repel  any 
implied  accusation.  Judas  uplifts  both  hands;  St.  Peter 
beckons  to  John  to  ask  the  Lord  of  whom  he  spake ;  Philip 
lays  his  hand  on  his  heart ;  Bartholomew,  at  the  end  of  the 
table,  rises  in  agitation  from  his  seat.  Notice  here  especially 
the  expression  of  the  hands,  as  well  as  of  the  faces  and 
figures ;  and  then  pass  on  to  consider  the  marvelous  head  of 
Christ,  which  has  passed  almost  into  a  type  of  divinity,  and 
which  is  certainly  the  only  instance  in  which  any  painter  has 
been  able  to  combine,  in  the  features  of  the  Redeemer, 
dignity,  solemnity,  and  majesty,  with  sweetness,  resignation, 
and  gentleness.  The  sketch  for  this  head,  in  black  and  white 
chalk,  is  still  at  Milan.  Ten  similar  studies  of  the  apostles 
were  purchased  by  the  King  of  Holland.  An  original  draw- 
ing of  the  whole  composition  is  at  Paris.  There  was  long  a 
tradition  that  the  prior  of  the  convent  had  served  as  a  model 
for  the  head  of  Judas,  but  such  a  story  is  only  mythical. 
The  fate  of  this  renowned  fresco  is  forcibly  told  in  a  late 
article  in  the  Edinburgh  Review  : 

"  The  misery  and  destruction  of  Italy  fell  heavily  on  the 
great  '  Cena,'  as  upon  every  good  and  beautiful  thing.  Fifty 
years  after  its  completion  its  glory  had  already  departed.  A 
painter  called  it  a  mere  blotch  of  color,  a  cardinal  called  it  a 
mere  relic.  Then  came  the  monks,  and  pierced  the  feet  of 
the  Saviour  afresh,  and  broke  the  legs  of  the  disciples. 
Quack  doctors  followed,  who  professed  to  know  a  healing 
secret,  and  who  anointed  and  painted  over  the  wounds  with 
gaudy  colors,  till,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Milanese  people,  it 


I34  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

was  far  more  beautiful  than  when  it  issued  from  the  master's 
hand.  Half  a  century  later,  in  1770,  the  small  remains  of 
original  epidermis  were  carefully  scarified,  and  a  new  restorer 
is  believed  to  have  given  the  coup-de-grdce.  From  time  to 
time,  also,  the  waters  rose  and  soaked  the  walls  to  which  so 
precious  a  surface  had  been  imperfectly  attached.  Finally 
the  horses  of  Napoleon's  cavalry  were  stabled  in  its  august 
presence,  innocent  at  all  events  of  the  sanctuary  they  defiled. 
And  when  wars  had  ceased  and  the  map  of  Europe  had  been 
rearranged,  the  new  masters  of  Lombardy  paraded  their 

possession  of  the  majestic  ruin  by  nailing  the  wretched  em- 

• 
blazonry  of  their  imperial  house  directly  above  the  head  of 

the  Saviour.  To  this  day,  perhaps  of  necessity,  a  species  of 
tinkering  under  the  plea  of  preservation  is  always  going  on, 
and  every  fresh  visit  to  it  shows  fresh  dilapidation."  In- 
numerable copies  have,  however,  been  made,  the  best  of 
which,  by  Marco  d'Oggione,  a  pupil  of  Leonardo,  is  now  in 
England.  A  splendid  engraving,  by  Raphael  Morghen,  pre- 
serves still  more  perfectly  the  expressions  of  the  original.  It 
has  also  been  twice  copied  in  mosaic. 

After  the  capture  of  Milan  by  the  French,  in  1499,  Leo- 
nardo returned  to  Florence,  where  he  received  a  commission 
for  an  altar-piece  in  the  church  of  the  Serviti.  This  was  to 
be  a  "  Holy  Family  with  St.  Anne,"  but  it  was  never  finished, 
and  all  that  is  left  of  it  is  the  cartoon  in  the  London  Academy. 
A  more  celebrated  cartoon  of  a  battle-scene,  intended  to 
adorn  the  council-hall  of  the  Palazzo  Vecchio,  has  entirely 
vanished.  Leonardo  and  Michael  Angelo  prepared  designs 
for  this  apartment,  and  each  exerted  himself  to  produce  a 
masterpiece.  Leonardo's  was  exhibited  two  years  before  his 


MONA  LISA  (Leonardo  da  Vinci). 


P-»34- 


DA    VINCI  AND  MICHAEL  ANGELO.  ,-- 

competitor's ;  but  he  experimented  with  such  poor  materials 
that  it  fell  to  pieces  as  he  painted  it,  and  the  cartoon  was 
finally  destroyed  and  lost.  Rubens  discovered  a  small  frag- 
ment of  it,  from  which  he  made  a  drawing,  at  present  in  the 
Louvre.  An  engraving  has  been  taken  from  this  drawing, 
^called  the  "Battle  of  the  Standard."  Michael  Angelo  and 
Leonardo  were  not  congenial  companions.  Leonardo  had 
been  too  long  supreme  in  Milan  to  brook  a  rival  in  Florence, 
and,  when  he  quarreled  with  Buonarotti,  contemptuously 
remarked  to  him,  "  I  was  famous  long  before  you  were 
born."  He  found  Michael  Angelo's  style  of  painting — prom- 
inent muscles  and  harsh  outlines — so  especially  disagreeable 
that  he  declared  his  figures  to  look  more  like  "  a  sack  of  wal- 
nuts "  than  human  forms.  Very  little  artistic  work  was  done 
by  Leonardo  during  his  sojourn  in  Florence,  except  the 
superb  portrait  of  Mona  Lisa,  the  wife  of  his  friend  Gio- 
condo,  hence  called  "  La  Joconde."  Upon  this  he  labored 
for  four  years,  touching  and  retouching  it,  but  never  satisfied 
with  the  result.  It  was  afterward  purchased  by  Francis  I. 
for  about  nine  thousand  dollars,  and  now  hangs  in  the 
Louvre.  All  its  beauties,  specially  its  sweet,  vague  smile, 
have  been  frequently  described ;  but  it  is  sadly  injured,  and 
I  doubt  if  anybody  looks  upon  it  with  as  much  real  pleasure 
as  upon  his  own  fine  portrait  of  himself  among  the  artists  of 
the  Ufnzi. 

A  journey  to  Rome,  in  1513,  did  not  secure  him  the 
honors  he  expected.  Michael  Angelo  and  Raphael  were  then 
diligently  painting  for  Pope  Leo  X.,  and  no  place  seemed 
ready  for  Leonardo.  The  .pope  did  indeed  give  him  a  com- 
mission, but  made  such  uncomplimentary  remarks  in  regard 
10 


136 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


to  his  slowness  and  procrastination  that  he  soon  withdrew  to 
Milan.  The  '*  Madonna  "  now  shown  at  San  Onofrio,  Rome, 
as  a  specimen  of  Leonardo's  labors,  is  thought  to  have  been 
executed  during  an  earlier  visit  to  that  city. 

Francis  I.  of  France,  whose  conquests  in  Italy  had  in- 
creased his  passion  for  art,  became  at  last  his  appreciative 
patron.  Not  only  did  Francis  profoundly  admire  his  talents, 
but  he  was  personally  very  fond  of  him,  and  delighted  with 
the  ingenious  toys  which  Leonardo,  still  true  to  the  tastes  of 
his  youth,  loved  to  provide  for  his  entertainment.  Mention 
is  particularly  made  of  his  constructing  an  automaton  lion, 
which  walked  into  the  king's  presence,  opening  its  breast, 
and  disclosing  bouquets  of  lilies.  No  record  is  left  of  any 
pictures  undertaken  in  these  declining  years  spent  at  the 
court  of  the  French  monarch.  An  illness  of  some  months 
closed  this  illustrious  career.  Vasari  tells  us  that  in  his  last 
sickness  Leonardo  sought  to  acquaint  himself  with  "  the  good 
and  holy  path  of  the  Catholic  religion,"  having  previously 
been  more  of  a  philosopher  than  of  a  Christian.  His  life  had 
always  been  calm,  temperate,  and  entirely  moral — never  en- 
thusiastic, never  self-sacrificing,  never  spiritual.  His  will, 
written  April  18,  1518,  in  a  strain  of  mingled  devotion  and 
courtliness,  recommends  his  soul  "  to  the  Lord  Jesus,  to  "the 
glorious  Virgin  Mary,  to  Monsignor  my  Lord  the  Archangel 
Michael,  and  all  the  blessed  angels,  saints,  and  saintesses 
of  paradise."  He  died  at  the  chateau  of  Cloux  at  Amboise, 
May  2,  1519,  and  was  long  believed  to  have  expired  in  the 
arms  of  Francis  I. ;  but  an  entry  in  the  king's  journal  shows 
that  Francis,  with  his  court,  was  that  day  at  St.-Germain-en- 
Laye,  and  the  tradition  is  thus  proved  to  be  unfounded, 


DA  'VINCI  AND  MICHAEL  ANGELO,  „. 

though  it  has  been  often  repeated,  and  Angelica  Kaufmann 
has  embodied  it  in  a  large  picture. 

Much  dispute  and  much  uncertainty  have  prevailed  in 
regard  to  the  authenticity  of  the  paintings  attributed  to  Leo- 
nardo. Such  questions  cannot  yet  be  regarded  as  entirely 
settled;  but  it  is  hoped  that  the  researches  of  Crowe  and 
Cavalcaselle  will  throw  more  satisfactory  light  upon  the  sub- 
ject. Meanwhile  it  is  certain  that  many  popularly  ascribed 
to  him  are  really  by  his  pupils,  or  imitations  taken  in  some 
cases  from  Leonardo's  rough  sketches.  Such  as  are  most 
clearly  by  himself  have  been  already  noticed.  Catalogues  of 
galleries  cannot  be  trusted,  as  the  matter  requires  very  criti- 
cal discrimination.  Four  of  the  five  pictures  at  the  Louvre 
are  considered  authentic;  but  the  pretty  "Vierge  aux  Ro- 
chers  "  is  probably  only  a  copy  of  one  of  Leonardo's  designs. 
Scarcely  any  thing,  except  the  "  Last  Supper  "  and  the  two 
portraits  in  the  Ambrosian  Library,  is  left  at  Milan.  A  Ma- 
donna, called  the  "  Litta  Madonna,"  has  been  secured  from 
Lombardy  for  the  Hermitage  at  St.  Petersburg.  Florence 
has  his  portrait,  the  "  Medusa-Head,"  and  the  half-finished 
"Adoration"  of  the  Uffizi;  but  the  male  portrait,  and  the 
"  Nun,"  of  the  Pitti,  are  merely  of  his  school.  Liibke  doubts 
the  genuineness  of  the  "Vanity  and  Modesty,"  in  the  Sciarra 
Palace,  Rome,  and  of  the  celebrated  "Vierge  au  Bas-relief." 
The  German  galleries  possess  almost  nothing  of  value.  The 
half-length  "  Christ  disputing  with  the  Doctors,"  in  the  Na- 
tional Gallery,  London,  is  from  the  brush  of  Bernardino 
Luini.  Viardot  observes  that,  if  it  represents  an  incident 
during  the  childhood  of  Christ,  the  painter  has  made  him  too 
ofd,  as  it  is  evidently  a  figure  of  twenty  years  of  age.  "  If 


jjg  SCHOOLS  ANQ  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

he  wished  to  depict  him  during  his  work,  and  before  the 
Pharisees,  he  has  made  him  too  young  and  also  too  richly 
dressed  ;  a  silk  garment  covered  with  jewels  is  scarcely  suit- 
able to  the  humble  life  of  the  preacher  who  chose  fishermen 
for  his  disciples." 

That  such  cases  of  "  mistaken  identity  "  should  so  fre- 
quently have  occurred,  convinces  us  that  the  scholars  of 
Leonardo  must  have  been  artists  of  unusual  excellence. 
Their  master  was  most  thorough  and  accurate  in  his  own 
work,  and  imparted  the  same  merits  to  his  pupils.  They 
were  taught  a  careful  and  laborious  finish,  a  tender  and  \\\- 
minous'  c/u'aro-oscurv,  a  delicate  polish  of  surface,  and  a  per- 
fect avoidance  of  sharply-outlined  lights  and  shadows.  These 
qualities,  joined  with  their  perpetual  imitation  of  Leonardo's 
gentle,  languid  smile,  so  invariably  characterize  them  that 
travelers  soon  learn  to  classify  at  sight  the  paintings  of 
"Leonardo's  school." 

Bernardino  Luini  was  so  talented  and  promising  a  pupil, 
that  beside  any  one  else  but  Leonardo  he  would  be  termed  a 
master.  He  was  born  on  Lake  Maggiore ;  and  the  town  of 
Lugano  still  displays  with  pride,  in  the  church  of  the  Fran- 
ciscans, some  small  pieces  by  his  hand,  and  a  large  and  ad- 
mirable fresco  of  the  "  Crucifixion,"  crowded  with  figures, 
and  very  interesting  in  detail.  Many  of  his  frescoes  have 
been  removed  to  the  Brera  Gallery,  Milan,  not  escaping  in- 
jury in  the  process.  Their  Madonnas  and  angels  are  ex- 
ceedingly graceful.  His  frescoes  from  the  history  of  the 
Virgin,  in  the  church  at  Saronno,  executed  about  1530,  are 
still  more  pleasing.  All  must  be  charmed  with  the  specimen, 
now  chromo-lithographed,  of  the  "  Finding  of  Jesus,"  or  the 


DA    VINCI  AND  MICHAEL  ANGELO. 

*sy 

"  Preaching  of  the  Saviour  in  the  Temple."  His  easel-pieces 
are  also  noble,  richly-colored,  and  expressive.  Kugler  attrib- 
utes to  him  the  Sciarra  "  Vanity  and  Modesty,"  and  also  the 
beautiful  "  Herodias  with  the  Head  of  St.  John  the  Baptist," 
in  the  tribune  of  the  Uffizi.  He  appears  to  great  advantage 
at  Milan,  not  only  in  the  Brera,  but  in  the  Ambrosian  Li- 
brary, where  we  find  his  curious  fresco  of  the  "  Crowning  with 
Thorns."  Christ  is  seated  in  the  centre:  two  rows  of  Mi- 
lanese citizens,  each  reverently  holding  his  cap  in  his  hand, 
kneel  on  either  side.  The  scene  takes  place  under  an  arcade 
whose  pillars  are  wreathed  with  gilt  thorns. 

Francesco  Melzi  is  more  distinguished  as  the  friend  than 
as  the  scholar  of  Leonardo.  He  has  given  an  account  of  Da 
Vinci's  death,  and  inherited  many  of  his  studies  and  manu- 
scripts. His  principal  painting  is  the  "  Vertumnus  and  Po- 
mona," at  Berlin. 

Andrea  Salaino,  whose  style  is  soft  and  graceful,  with 
reddish  flesh  tints ;  Marco  d'Oggione,  the  successful  copyist 
of  the  "  Cena,"  and  Cesare  di  Sesto,  who  endeavored  to  unite 
the  manner  of  Raphael  with  that  of  Da  Vinci,  are  the  only 
remaining  members  of  the  school  whom  it  is  necessary  to 
mention ;  with  the  exception  of  Andrea  Solario,  another 
Milanese,  surnamed  "Del  Gobbo,"  and  Gaudenzio  Ferrari 
(1484-1549),  Leonardo's  followers,  but  not  his  immediate 
disciples.  Gaudenzio  is  noted  for  his  peculiarly  beautiful 
bands  of  angels  in  the  dome  of  the  church  at  Saronno.  Other 
paintings  of  the  "  Crucifixion  "  and  "  Last  Supper  "  are  in 
Piedmont  and  at  Milan.  A  "  Martyrdom  of  St.  Catharine," 
in  the  Brera,  and  a  group  lamenting  over  the  dead  Christ,  in 
the  Royal  Gallery  of  Turin,  are  among  his  best  easel-pieces. 


I40  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

The  Titanic  genius  of  Michael  Angelo  Buonarotti  found 
a  fitter  expression  in  sculpture  than  in  painting;  but  the 
mighty  measure  of  his  mind  displays  itself  in  the  frescoes  of 
the  Sistine  Chapel  as  powerfully  as  in  his  seated  "  Moses  "  or 
colossal  "David."  Utterly  unlike  Leonardo,  and  yet  still 
more  original,  both  his  character  and  his  works  range  them- 
selves upon  a  level  too  high  for  ordinary  comprehension.  In 
comparing  the  influential  masters  of  this  epoch  it  has  been 
justly  said  :  "  Leonardo  and  Raphael  were  men  of  the  world ; 
supple,  courtier-like,  swimming  with  the  stream ;  Michael 
Angelo  was  stern,  upright,  and  always  in  conflict  with  it. 
Leonardo  was  the  greater  genius ;  Michael  Angelo  the  nobler 
spirit;  Raphael  the  happier  man." 

The  family  of  Michael  Angelo  was  of  noble,  and,  accord- 
ing to  his  own  belief,  even  of  princely  descent.  Their  prestige 
had,  however,  faded,  and  their  fortunes  dwindled  by  the 
middle  of  the  fifteenth  century.  But  the  father  of  the  artist, 
though  poor,  had  an  honorable  position  as  governor  of  two 
little  cities  in  the  valley  of  the  Singarna ;  and  there,  on  the 
6th  of  March,  1475,  Michael  Angelo  was  born.  Grimm  in- 
forms us  that  his  name  was  properly  Michael  Agnolo,  instead 
of  Angelo,  but  custom  has  fixed  the  orthography.  In  the 
year  1476  his  father,  Lodovico  Buonarotti,  returned  to  Flor- 
ence, but  left  his  infant  son  at  the  town  of  Settignano,  with 
the  wife  of  a  stone-mason,  till  he  imbibed  a  love  for  the 
marble  with  his  nurse's  milk.  This  did  not  suit  the  plans  of 
the  father,  who  wished  him  to  become  a  scholar ;  but  the 
spirit  of  determined  opposition  was  as  strong  in  the  boy  as  in 
the  man,  and  at  the  age  of  fourteen  he  gained  his  point,  and 
was  permitted  to  enter  the  Florentine  studio  of  Ghirlandajo, 


DA    VINCI  AND  MICHAEL  ANGELO.  I4I 

to  whom  he  was  apprenticed  for  three  years.  There  he  exe- 
cuted his  first  painting,  an  enlarged  copy  in  colors  of  a 
"Temptation  of  St.  Anthony,"  etched  by  a  quaint  German 
artist,  Martin  Schongauer.  This  was  a  favorite  subject  in  the 
Netherlands,  but  had  the  charm  of  novelty  to  the  young  Ital- 
ian, who  worked  with  enthusiasm  on  the  tormented  saint  and 
his  fishy  demons.  Ghirlandajo  praised  it,  but  was  not  pleased 
with  the  growing  talents  of  his  pupil,  who,  he  feared,  might 
prove  superior  to  the  master ;  and  before  the  stipulated  three 
years  were  over  their  contract  was  broken,  and  Michael  An- 
gelo  left  free  to  enter  for  himself  upon  his  life  of  art. 

His  opening  prospects  were  sunshiny  and  splendid.  The 
Medici  were  supreme  in  Florence,  and  Lorenzo  the  Magnifi- 
cent had  adorned  the  gardens  of  San  Marco  with  statuary, 
cartoons,  and  pictures.  To  this  delightful  spot  Michael  Angelo 
obtained  admission  through  his  friend  Francesco  Granacci, 
and  soon  attracted  the  attention  of  Lorenzo.  The  story  runs 
that  while  the  youthful  sculptor  was  modeling  the  mask  of  a 
faun,  Lorenzo  passed  by,  and  jestingly  told  him  so  old  a 
faun  ought  to  have  lost  some  of  his  teeth ;  and  that  Michael 
Angelo  listened,  and  struck  one  out  so  skillfully,  leaving  the 
mouth  with  such  a  natural  gap,  that  Lorenzo  became  much 
interested  in  his  talents,  inquired  into  his  history,  gave  his 
father  a  government  office,  and  took  the  young  man  into  his 
own  palace,  where  he  made  him  permanently  at  home,  and 
treated  him  with  great  honor  and  affection.  An  incredulous 
critic  declares  that  in  this  piece  of  sculpture,  which  is  still 
preserved  in  the-  gallery  of  the  Uffizi,  under  the  name  of 
"  Head  of  an  Old  Satyr,"  there  is  no  place  visible  where  any 
tooth  could  have  been  knocked  out,  and  that  the  tale  is  all  a 


142 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


pleasant  fable.  But,  whatever  may  be  the  truth  of  this,  life 
in  the  Medici  Palace  must  have  been  an  agreeable  reality : 
though  even  there  Michael  Angelo  seems  to  have  sometimes 
shown  himself  sarcastic  and  passionate;  and  so  quarreled 
with  one  of  his  companions,  Torregiano,  that  the  latter  struck 
him  in  the  face  with  his  mallet,  and  broke  his  nose.  His  at- 
tention as  a  student  was  principally  called  to  the  works  of 
Donatello  and  Masaccio,  and  his  preference  for  sculpture  was 
plainly  evident.  The  death  of  Lorenzo  ended  these  peaceful 
labors ;  for,  though  his  successor,  Piero  de  Medici,  was  kind, 
yet  he  had  not  the  ability  or  disposition  to  be  so  liberal  a 
patron  as  his  father.  Political  troubles  which  followed  soon 
broke  up  all  Florentine  interest ;  and  upon  the  overthrow  of 
the  Medici  Michael  Angelo  temporarily  escaped  from  the 
city,  and  fled  to  Bologna,  where  he  remained  a  year,  pre- 
vented by  the  jealousy  of  the  Bolognese  artists  from  under- 
taking any  important  work. 

When  he  returned  to  Florence  Savonarola  was  at  the  zenith 
of  his  popularity,  and  deeply  impressed  him  by  his  zeal  and 
patriotism.  Not  that,  like  his  fellow-artists,  Bartolomeo  and 
Lorenzo  di  Credi,  he  was  prepared  to  burn  his  designs  and 
drawings,  for  no  earthly  power  could  have  subdued  Michael 
Angelo 's  affection  for  the  nude ;  but  he  became  an  adherent 
of  the  monk,  and  long  remembered  his  preaching.  Mean- 
while he  modeled  a  Cupid  so  perfectly  that  it  was  bought  by 
a  Roman  cardinal  as  a  veritable  antique.  When  the  secret 
of  its  authorship  was  discovered,  the  artist  was  invited  to 
Rome,  and  there  accomplished  two  statues,  very  different  in 
character,  the  "  Drunken  Bacchus,"  at  present  in  the  Uffizi, 
and  the  marble  "  Pieta "  in  St.  Peter's  Church.  The  latter 


DA    VINCI  AND  MICHAEL  ANGELO.  ,,- 

"  <J 

was  completed  when  he  was  but  twenty-four  years  old  ;  and 
then,  as  political  matters  in  Florence  were  once  more  com- 
paratively quiet,  he  came  back  again  to  his  home,  where 
even  yet  his  powers  were  scarcely  recognized.  A  life-sized 
"  Madonna,"  sculptured  at  this  time,  was  purchased  for  a 
church  of  Bruges,  while  the  painted  "  Holy  Family,"  in 
the  tribune  of  the  Uffizi,  may  also  be  referred  to  the  same 
period.  But  he  was  now  to  be  called  to  an  undertaking 
which  should  forever  fix  his  fame.  The  city  of  Florence 
owned  an  immense  block  of  marble  which  had  long  been 
thought  entirely  useless,  till  Andrea  Sansovino,  the  mas- 
ter of  the  celebrated  Venetian  architect,  requested  that  it 
might  be  presented  to  him.  This  the  governing  consuls 
would  not  agree  to  do  till  they  had  offered  it  to  Michael 
Angelo,  who  declared  he  would  use  it  to  their  satisfaction. 
Thus  originated  the  gigantic  "  David,"  which  was  finished  in 
less  than  three  years,  and  weighed  eighteen  thousand  pounds. 
The  Florentines  were  most  animated  in  expressing  their  de- 
light, and  the  statue  was  placed,  by  the  artist's  own  desire, 
in  front  of  the  Palazzo  Vecchio,  close  to  the  spot  where  Sa- 
vonarola had  been  put  to  death. 

This  was  the  "epoch  when  Leonardo  da  Vinci  revisited 
Florence,  and  proposed  to  fresco  the  Hall  of  Public  Council, 
for  which  the  rival  cartoons  we  have  already  mentioned  were 
designed.  It  has  been  said  that  the  subject  chosen  was  a 
"  Battle-Scene  ;  "  but  Michael  Angelo  proceeded  to  represent, 
not  the  combat  itself,  but  a  group  of  soldiers,  who,  while 
bathing  in  the  Arno,  hear  the  call  of  the  trumpet,  and  spring 
out  at  once  for  the  fight.  Thirty  figures  were  drawn  of  the 
size  of  life,  with  all  the  vigorous  attitudes  and  gestures  which 


I44  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

he  so  loved  to  delineate.  The  cartoon  was  produced  a  little 
later  than  Leonardo's,  and  while  it  was  still  in  progress  the 
sculptor  was  summoned  to  Rome  by  Pope  Julius  II.,  who  de- 
sired him  to  furnish  plans  for  a  colossal  papal  mausoleum,  to 
be  erected  in  St.  Peter's.  This  mausoleum  Michael  Angelo 
wished  to  place  in  the  tribune  of  the  church,  and  threw 
himself  with  all  his  heart  into  the  necessary  preparations. 
His  drawing  for  the  intended  monument  is  still  shown  in  the 
Uffizi.  Eight  large  figures  were  to  be  seated  on  its  pedestals  ; 
among  them  the  renowned  "  Moses,"  now  so  disadvantageous- 
ly  exhibited  in  the  church  of  San  Pietro  in  Vincoli.  The 
pope  commissioned  him  to  purchase  an  enormous  quantity  of 
marble  from  Carrara ;  but,  before  any  thing  could  be  really 
begun,  the  jealous  architect  Bramante  persuaded  Julius  that 
it  would  be  a  bad  omen  to  erect  a  mausoleum  in  his  lifetime, 
and  the  pope  showed  such  hesitation  and  reluctance  to  pro- 
ceed with  the  undertaking,  that  Michael  Angelo,  in  deep  dis- 
gust, wrote  an  angry  letter,  quitted  his  service,  and  left  Rome 
for  Florence.  The  pope  was  much  enraged,  and  demanded 
his  return.  But  he  refused  to  comply,  and  went  on  with  the 
cartoon  of  the  "  Bathing  Soldiers,"  which  after  all  was  never 
painted,  but  mysteriously  destroyed,  and  now  survives  only 
in  a  small  copy  and  an  engraving. 

Julius  II.,  in  the  interval,  had  made  war  upon  Bologna, 
and  after  reducing  the  city  to  submission,  sent  again  for 
Michael  Angelo,  who  at  last  yielded,  and  presented  himself 
to  his  Holiness.  He  was  received  at  Bologna  with  tolerable 
graciousness,  and  given  an  order  to  mould  a  bronze  statue  of 
the  pope,  three  times  the  size  of  life,  to  be  seated  before  the 
gate  of  St.  Petronio.  While  thus  absent  from  home  we  have 


DA    VINCI  AND  MICHAEL  ANGELO 

X45 

the  records  of  his  correspondence  with  his  family,  showing 
how  thoroughly  and  generously  he  devoted  himself  to  provid- 
ing for  his  father  and  brothers  ;  living  always  like  a  poor  man, 
and  investing  his  earnings  for  their  benefit.  He  did  not  win 
much  favor  among  the  artists  of  Bologna,  to  whom  he  showed 
the  bitter  and  satirical  side  of  his  character.  But  the  pope 
did  not  again  lose  sight  of  him,  and,  in  1508,  insisted  upon 
his  establishing  himself  at  Rome,  not  allowing  him,  as  he  had 
hoped,  to  continue  the  designs  for  the  mausoleum,  but  re- 
quiring him  to  fresco  the  ceiling  of  the  Sistine  Chapel.  To 
this  Michael  Angelo  objected,  replying  that  he  was  not  accus- 
tomed to  work  in  colors,  and  that  painting  was  not  his  voca- 
tion. Julius  was  determined  that  he  should  execute  the  task, 
and  to  his  obstinacy  we  owe  that  matchless  series  of  paintings 
to  which  the  world  unites  in  rendering  homage. 

The  vaulted  roof  of  the  chapel,  sloping  down  to  the  win- 
dows, is  covered  with  these  splendid  frescoes,  which  are, 
however,  so  high  and  so  badly  lighted  that  one  can  only  see 
them  to  advantage  by  lying  flat  on  the  back,  with  the  best  of 
opera-glasses.  The  artist  often  had  to  stretch  himself  in  the 
same  position  upon  the  scaffolding  in  order  to  paint  correctly. 
The  student  should,  if  possible,  procure  an  engraving  or 
photograph,  that  he  may  understand  the  arrangement  of  the 
frescoes.  The  ceiling  is  arched  at  the  sides,  but  flattened  in 
the  centre.  This  middle  space  is  occupied  by  scenes  from 
Genesis,  beginning  with  the  "Creation  of  the  World;"  the 
"  Creation  of  Adam  ;"  and  the  "  Creation  of  Eve  :  "  continu- 
ing through  the  "  Expulsion  from  Paradise ; "  the  "  Sacrifice 
of  Cain  and  Abel,"  or,  as  some  explain  it,  the  "  Sacrifice  of 
Noah;  "  the  "Deluge;  "  and  the  "Drunkenness  of  Noah." 


146 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS   OF  PAINTING. 


Around  the  curved  sides,  and  between  the  tops  of  the  win- 
dows, are  twelve  compartments,  each  of  which  contains  an 
immense  single  figure.  Five  of  these  figures  are  sibyls,  and 
seven  prophets — described  in  the  following  passages  quoted 
from  Mrs.  Jameson  and  Grimm : 

"  The  Sibylla  Persica,  supposed  to  be  the  oldest  of  the 
sisterhood,  holds  her  book  close  to  her  eyes,  as  if  from  dim- 
ness of  sight ;  which  fact,  contradicted  as  it  is  by  a  frame  of 
obviously  Herculean  strength,  gives  a  mysterious  intentness 
to  the  action. 

"The  Sibylla  Erythrsea,  a  grand,  bareheaded  creature, 
sits  reading  intently,  with  crossed  legs,  about  to  turn  over 
her  book. 

"The  Sibylla  Delphica,  with  waving  hair  escaping  from 
her  turban,  is  a  beautiful  young  being,  the  most  human  of  all, 
gazing  into  vacancy  or  futurity.  She  holds  a  scroll. 

"  The  Sibylla  Cumana,  also  aged,  and  with  her  head  cov- 
ered, is  reading,  with  her  volume  at  a  distance  from  her  eyes. 

"  The  Sibylla  Libyca,  of  powerful  proportions,  but  less 
closely  draped,  has  lifted  a  massive  volume  from  a  height 
above  her  head  on  to  her  knees." 

The  prophets  are  placed  alternately  with  these  female 
forms.  Next  to  the  "Persica"  comes  Jeremiah,  "his  feet 
crossed  under  him,  bent  forward,  supporting  the  elbow  of 
his  left  arm  against  his  side,  and  his  hand  across  his  mouth, 
buried  in  the  great  beard  of  his  leaning  head ;  the  image  of 
the  deepest,  calmest  thought." 

"  Then  Ezekiel,  his  body  eagerly  bent  forward  ;  his  right 
hand  stretched  out  demonstratively ;  his  left  holding  an  un- 
rolled parchment. 


DANIEL  (Michael  Angela). 


p.  147. 


DA    VINCI  AND  MICHAEL  ANGELO.  T,- 

I47 

"  Next  comes  the  prophet  Joel,  unrolling  with  both  hands 
a  parchment  lying  before  him. 

"  Then  Zacharias,  entirely  absorbed  in  his  book,  as  if  he 
would  never  leave  off  reading. 

"Then  Isaiah,  with  a  slightly-wrinkled  brow,  the  fore- 
finger of  his  left  hand  stretched  out,  the  right  grasping  the 
leaves  of  a  closed  book. 

"  Then  comes  Daniel.  Before  him  is  a  boy  holding  on 
his  back  an-  open  book.  He,  however,  a  beautiful  youth, 
looking  sideways  past  it  into  the  depths  below,  seems  to 
listen  to  the  words  which  reach  him ;  and,  forgetting  that  he 
has  no  pen  in  his  hand,  he  makes  a  movement  of  writing  on 
another  book,  which  lies  at  his  side  upon  a  desk." 

"  Lastly  Jonah,  who,  lying  backward,  naked,  with  only  a 
cloth  around  his  body,  has  been  just  discharged  from  the 
jaws  of  the  fish  which  is  visible  behind  him." 

In  the  angles  made  by  the  four  corners  of  the  ceiling  are 
four  historical  subjects  from  the  Old  Testament,  portraying 
great  deliverances  of  the  children  of  Israel — "Judith  with 
the  Head  of  Holofernes,"  "David  slaying  Goliath,"  the 
"  Miracle  of  the  Brazen  Serpent,"  and  the  "  Punishment  of 
Haman."  The  arches  of  the  windows  are  adorned  with  re- 
posing groups  of  the  ancestors  of  the  Virgin. 

"  A  great  number  of  figures  are  also  connected  with  the 
architectural  framework ;  those  in  unimportant  situations  are 
executed  in  the  color  of  stone  or  bronze ;  in  the  more  im- 
portant, in  natural  colors.  They  serve  to  support  the  archi- 
tectural forms,  to  fill  up  and  connect  the  whole ;  and  may  be 
best  described  as  the  living  and  embodied  genii  of  archi- 
tecture." 


I48  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

The  entire  composition  is  intended  to  be  harmonious  in 
all  its  parts;  commencing  with  the  Creation  and  Fall  of 
man ;  depicting  the  prophets  who  foretold  a  Redeemer  to  the 
Jews,  and  the  Sibyls  who  predicted  his  advent  to  the  Gentile 
world;  showing,  in  stories  from  the  Old  Testament,  well- 
known  types  of  greater  deliverances  through  the  Messiah; 
and  finally  leading  the  mind  to  the  immediate  ancestors  of 
the  Virgin  and  the  Saviour,  who  await  in  calm  expectancy 
the  coming  of  Christ. 

This  magnificent  work  exhibits  every  quality  of  Michael 
Angelo's  genius.  We  see  his  perfect  mastery  of  the  human 
form,  his  sublimity  of  design,  his  profound  imagination  and 
boldness  of  execution,  his  astonishing  skill  in  perspective  and 
foreshortening,  and  his  feeling  for  the  beautiful,  so  seldom 
visible  in  his  colossal  and  muscular  sculpture.  No  other 
hand  was  allowed  to  touch  the  frescoes.  He  shut  himself  up 
in  the  chapel  with  only  his  color-grinder,  and  worked  so 
furiously  that  all  was  completed  in  between  twenty  and 
twenty-four  months.  Viardot  says  he  constructed  for  himself 
a  sort  of  card-board  helmet,  on  the  top  of  which  he  fastened 
a  candle,  that  he  might  be  able  to  labor  through  the  night. 
Julius  insisted  that  the  painting  should  be  displayed  to  the 
public.  Michael  Angelo  remonstrated,  but  the  pope,  in  a 
violent  passion,  threatened  to  throw  him  from  the  scaffolding 
if  he  opposed  him ;  and  on  All  Saints'  Day,  1509,  the  populace 
of  Rome  crowded  into  the  chapel  to  gaze  upon  its  wonders. 
The  removal  of  the  scaffolding  rendered  the  finishing  of  the 
pictures  very  difficult.  The  pope  desired  some  of  the  figures 
to  be  retouched,  and  decorated  with  gold ;  the  artist,  how- 
ever, did  not  consider  this  necessary.  "  But  it  looks  so  poor," 


DA    VINCI  AND  MICHAEL  ANGELO. 

149 

replied  Julius.  "They  are  only  poor  people,"  returned 
Michael  Angelo,  jestingly,  "  whom  I  have  painted  there.  They 
did  not  wear  gold  on  their  garments." 

The  next  two  or  three  years  were  barren  of  profitable 
orders.  The  papal  coffers  had  been  emptied  by  wars  and 
negotiations,  and  whatever  patronage  was  to  be  given  was 
monopolized  by  Raphael,  who  had  been  cordially  welcomed 
at  Rome,  and  was  employed  in  the  Vatican.  After  the  death 
of  Julius,  in  1513,  Michael  Angelo  resumed  his  plans  for  the 
Mausoleum,  for  which  he  was  sculpturing  the  "  Moses  hold- 
ing the  Tables  of  the  Law."  It  is  supposed  that  at  this 
period  he  was  also  engaged  upon  the  "  Two  Chained  Youths," 
likewise  intended  for  the  Mausoleum,  but  eventually  brought 
to  France,  where  they  are  preserved  in  the  Louvre.  After 
three  years  of  such  labors,  Leo  X.,  the  successor  of  Julius, 
and  himself  one  of  the  Medici  family,  who  had  lately  been 
restored  to  power  at  Florence,  proposed  to  erect  a  marble 
fa9ade  to  the  Florentine  church  of  San  Lorenzo;  and  the 
commission  was  intrusted  to  Michael  Angelo,  who  stipulated 
that  he  should  be  allowed  to  continue  at  the  same  time  his 
work  upon  the  Mausoleum.  This  left  Raphael  monarch  of 
the  situation  at  Rome.  Grimm,  in  his  "Biography,"  en- 
deavors to  soften  the  account  of  the  antagonism  between 
these  artists,  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  Michael  Angelo 
looked  with  jealousy  and  bitterness  upon  Raphael's  increas- 
ing fame,  and  even  entered  into  intrigues  with  Sebastian  del 
Piombo  in  the  hope  of  lessening  his  favor  with  the  pope. 
We  find  no  expression  of  sympathy  or  regret  in  Michael 
Angelo.'s  words  or  letters  in  regard  to  his  rival's  early  death. 
Indeed,  however  high  may  be  our  appreciation  of  this  great 


I5o  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

master's  really  noble  character,  we  must  admit  that  he  had 
such  faults  as  misanthropy,  envy,  and  a  violent  temper.  His 
virtues  were  strict,  unblemished  integrity,  deep  sincerity,  an 
unfaltering  sense  of  duty,  an  intense  though  secret  capacity 
and  yearning  for  affection,  self-sacrificing  devotion  to  his 
family,  and  profound  reverence  and  religion.  Through  a 
long  and  lonely  life  he  showed  a  constant  respect  and  love 
for  his  father,  who  must  have  been  a  disagreeable  and  ex- 
acting man,  as  is  proved  in  one  of  the  sculptor's  letters  where 
he  says :  "  I  live  shabbily,  and  care  not  for  outward  honor ; 
a  thousand  cares  and  works  burden  me,  and  thus  I  have  now 
gone  on  for  fifteen  years,  without  having  a  happy,  quiet  hour. 
And  I  have  done  all  this  for  the  sake  of  supporting  you, 
which  you  have  never  acknowledged  or  believed."  Such  a 
temperament  should  not  be  judged  by  the  same  standard  as 
the  genial  Raphael,  who  lived  among  metaphorical  roses,  and 
whose  destiny  was  all  sunshine. 

The  fa9ade  of  San  Lorenzo  was  abandoned  for  want  of 
funds,  and  many  changes  took  place  in  Rome.  Meanwhile 
Michael  Angelo  dwelt  quietly  but  not  patiently  at  Florence, 
chiseling  the  statue  of  Christ  now  in  the  Roman  church  of 
Santa  Maria  sopra  Minerva,  and  commencing  the  Medici 
chapel  of  San  Lorenzo,  ordered  by  Cardinal  de  Medici,  who, 
after  the  death  of  Leo  X.  and  the  short  pontificate  of  Adrian, 
was  chosen  pope  under  the  title  of  Clement  VII.  This  was 
the  period  when  the  two  admirable  statues  of  Duke  Lorenzo 
and  Duke  Julian,  which  adorn  this  celebrated  sacristy,  were 
executed.  The  state  troubles  of  Italy  were  once  more  en- 
grossing all  hearts.  In  1527  the  victorious  army  of  the  Con- 
stable de  Bourbon  sacked  Rome,  and  threatened  Florence ; 


DA    VINCI  AND^MICHAEL  ANGELO.  IS1 

the  Medici  were  again  deposed,  and  a  new  government  pro- 
claimed, which  prepared  to  defend  the  city.  In  1529  Michael 
Angelo  was  employed  to  fortify  the  heights  of  San  Miniato. 
Apprehensive  of  treachery,  he  fled  with  his  friend  Rinaldo 
Corsini  to  Venice,  where  the  nobles  desired  to  keep  him 
permanently ;  but  he  refused  all  public  honors,  and  preferred 
to  live  very  quietly  as  a  mere  visitor.  He  was  declared  a 
rebel  and  an  exile  by  the  Florentine  authorities,  and  his 
sonnets  show  that  he  felt  the  proscription  almost  as  severely 
as  Dante.  His  friends,  however,  procured  his  recall,  and 
with  a  change  of  administration  he  assumed  his  former 
charge  of  the  fortifications. 

But  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  supported  the  pope  in  de- 
manding the  reinstatement  of  the  Medici,  and,  however 
bravely  the  city  might  fight,  its  submission  was  only  a  ques- 
tion of  time.  After  suffering,  starvation,  and  struggles,  which 
tried  the  very  souls  of  such  patriots  as  Michael  Angelo, 
Florence  abandoned  the  contest,  freedom  was  at  an  end,  and 
the  Medici  conquered.  The  vanquished  artist  kept  himself 
concealed,  but  he  was  too  great  a  man  to  be  ignored  or 
punished  by  the  victors.  They  were  willing  enough  to  par- 
don him  as  a  citizen,  in  order  to  retain  him  as  a  sculptor ; 
and  immediately  commissioned  him  to  continue  his  labors 
in  the  Medici  Sacristy.  He  plunged  into  the  work  with 
morbid  eagerness,  and  in  a  few  months  had  chiseled  the 
four  great  figures  which  still  repose  on  their  stone  coffins — 
"  Night,"  and  "  Day,"  "  Evening  Twilight,"  and  "  Early  Dawn." 
Of  these,  the  "Dawn,"  or  "Aurora,"  is  the  most  beautiful; 
"  Night,"  the  most  powerful.  The  motto  affixed  to  the  latter 
statue  by  the  artist  himself  ran  thus :  "  Sleep  is  dear  to  me, 
ii 


IS2  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

and  still  more  that  I  am  stone,  so  long  as  dishonor  and 
shame  last  among  us;  the  happiest  fate  is  to  see,  to  hear 
nothing ;  for  this  reason  waken  me  not !  I  pray  you  speak 
gently."  No  one  denied  him  such  license  of  expression. 
Even  Pope  Clement  stood  in  awe  of  him ;  and  it  has  been 
remarked  that  he  did  not  dare  to  sit  down  when  he  spoke 
with  him,  for  fear  the  sculptor,  unasked,  would  do  the  same. 
"  And  if  he  ordered  Michael  Angelo  to  put  on  his  hat  in  his 
presence,  it  was  probably  only  because  Michael  Angelo  would 
not  long  have  waited  for  an  invitation  to  do  so." 

The  decoration  of  the  sacristy  and  library  of  San  Lorenzo 
was  carried  on  till  the  death  of  the  pope,  in  1534.  Ales- 
sandro  de  Medici,  ruler  of  Florence,  was  then  so  avowedly 
hostile  to  Michael  Angelo  that  the  master  returned  to  Rome, 
where,  at  the  command  of  the  new  pope,  Paul  III.,  he  began 
his  .marvelous  painting  of  the  "  Last  Judgment,"  on  the 
altar-wall  of  the  Sistine  Chapel.  The  task  was  congenial  to 
his  mood ;  and  the  passionate  anger  and  sorrow  of  his  soul  are 
reproduced  in  the  fresco.  The  picture  is  sublime,  but  most 
painful;  rather  suggesting  a  heathen  tragedy  than  a  Chris- 
tian judgment- scene.  It  will  be  described  with  the  "  Trans- 
figuration," "  Last  Supper,"  and  other  masterpieces ;  at  pres- 
ent it  is  only  necessary  to  refer  to  its  main  features.  At  the 
top  of  the  composition,  which  is  thronged  with  two  hundred 
figures,  Christ  is  condemning  the  wicked,  while  the  Virgin 
looks  away  in  pitying  silence.  The  dead  rise  in  naked  crowds 
from  their  graves ;  and  angels  and  demons  enforce  the  Judge's 
sentence.  Nothing  but  despair  and  horror  prevails.  The 
angels  look  like  "  fighting  athletes ;  "  the  demons  are  Titanic 
fiends;  even  the  blessed  seem  but  miserable,  muscular  sin- 


DA    VINCI  AND  MICHAEL  ANGELO.  „, 

jO 

nets.  It  was  finished  and  exhibited  to  the  people  on  Christ- 
mas-day, 1541.  We  now  behold  it  so  blackened  by  age  and 
incense-smoke  that  we  can  but  faintly  trace  its  original  color- 
ing. Indeed,  the  chapel  is  so  dark  that  only  calcium-light 
can  perfectly  illuminate  it.  Add  to  this  the  fact  that  an  altar- 
canopy  is  frequently  placed  before  the  painting,  and  we  gain 
some  idea  of  the  difficulty  of  thoroughly  inspecting  it. 

As  soon  as  the  "  Last  Judgment "  was  completed,  Paul 
III.  desired  that  the  Pauline  Chapel  which  he  had  con- 
structed in  the  Vatican  should  be  frescoed  by  the  same 
artist ;  and  Michael  Angelo  accordingly  adorned  its  one  wall 
with  the  "  Conversion  of  St.  Paul,"  and  the  other  with  the 
"  Crucifixion  of  St.  Peter ;  "  but  these  have  become  so  faded 
and  obliterated  that  there  is  little  satisfaction  in  studying 
their  remains.  They  are,  however,  his  last  pictures.  Thence- 
forth he  devoted  himself  to  architecture.  The  reader  will 
have  noticed  that  no  mention  is  made  of  any  finished  easel- 
piece  by  Michael  Angelo 's  own  hand,  except  the  "Holy 
Family "  in  the  tribune  of  the  Uffizi.  He  despised  oil- 
painting,  saying  it  was  only  fit  for  women;  but  he  often 
allowed  his  pupils  to  copy  from  his  cartoons  and  drawings. 
Some  ascribe  to  him  the  very  forcible  group  of  the  "  Parcae," 
or  "  Three  Fates,"  in  the  Pitti  Palace,  Florence.  It  is  cer- 
tainly haggard,  vehement,  and  muscular  enough  to  warrant 
the  assertion ;  but  it  was  probably  only  designed  by  himself, 
and  executed  by  one  of  his  pupils. 

The  declining  years  of  Michael  Angelo's  life  were  sweet- 
ened by  a  friendship  which  is  one  of  the  purest  instances  of 
Platonic  love  on  record.  The  solitary,  sensitive  man  had 
always  had  a  certain  susceptibility  under  his  outward  stern- 


I54  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

ness.  He  had  loved  children,  and  would  have  loved  women 
if  he  could  ever  have  brought  himself  to  believe  that  his 
affection  would  be  returned.  But  he  appears  to  have  ex- 
aggerated the  defects  of  his  own  person  and  temperament. 
His  projecting  forehead,  broad  head,  small,  light  eyes,  and 
disfigured  nose,  convinced  him  that  it  was  useless  to  hope 
for  any  tender  passion,  and  he  resigned  himself  to  loneliness. 
But,  when  over  sixty  years  of  age,  he  met  at  Rome  Vittoria 
Colonna,  a  daughter  of  the  old  and  princely  house  of  Co- 
lonna,  and  the  widow  of  the  Marchese  di  Pescara.  It  is  not 
known  how  the  friendship  began,  but  Vittoria  was  at  that 
time  leading  a  secluded  and  charitable  life  in  the  home  of 
her  ancestors,  and  the  artist  seems  from  the  first  to  have 
worshiped  her  as  Dante  did  his  Beatrice.  He  wrote  her  en- 
thusiastic letters  and  sonnets;  and  though  she  never  really 
reciprocated  his  love — her  deepest  feelings  being  consecrated 
to  the  memory  of  her  husband — yet  her  regard  for  him  was 
most  true  and  sincere,  and  the  influence  of  such  a  noble, 
intellectual,  refined,  and  holy  woman  upon  his  morbid  nature 
was  inexpressibly  elevating  and  sweet.  She  died  in  her  fifty- 
seventh  year,  and  he  long  afterward  lamented  that  even  in 
her  last  hour  he  had  only  kissed  her  hand,  and  not  her  fore- 
head or  cheek.  His  affection  for  her,  his  care  for  his  father, 
and  his  kindness  to  his  old  servant  Urbino,  bring  before  us 
the  most  beautiful  traits  of  his  character. 

Time  removed  from  him  both  friends  and  foes.  His  old 
age  at  Rome  was  melancholy,  but  honored.  He  was  ap- 
pointed architect  of  St.  Peter's  Church,  and  to  him  we  owe 
its  magnificent  dome,  but  not  its  awkward  fa9ade.  He  con- 
sidered this  labor  a  work  of  piety,  and  refused  all  payment. 


DA    VINCI  AND  MICHAEL  ANGELO.  'IS5 

Successive  popes  treated  him  with  every  mark  of  reverence, 
and  his  death,  on  the  i8th  of  February,  1564,  filled  the  city 
with  mourning.  He  was  then  eighty-nine  years  old,  and  in 
full  possession  of  his  faculties.  His  will  was  brief,  but 
pointed  :  "  I  commit  my  soul  to  God,  my  body  to  the  earth, 
and  my  property  to  my  nearest  relations."  He  is  buried  in 
Florence,  in  the  church  of  Santa  Croce,  where  a  monument 
now  stands  to  his  memory.  A  still  more  interesting  monu- 
ment, however,  is  his  family  house  at  Florence,  where  many 

relics  of  the  great  artist  are  collected,  and  where  we  see  the 

• 

sad,  earnest,  and  mournful  portrait  of  this  gifted  man,  who 
in  much  genius  found  much  grief,  and  whom  the  world  could 
neither  comprehend  nor  satisfy. 

Very  few  of  Michael  Angelo's  followers  were  under  his 
personal  teaching.  His  favorite,  Condivi,  though  not  much 
of  a  painter,  devoted  himself  to  writing  his  master's  biog- 
raphy. It  was  subsequently  rewritten  by  Vasari.  Sebas- 
tian del  Piombo,  his  early  pupil,  often  worked  from  Michael 
Angelo's  own  sketches,  yet  he  belongs  by  birth  to  the  Vene- 
tian school,  where  he  will  be  briefly  noticed.  Marcello 
Venusti,  another  pupil,  painted  the  portrait  of  Vittoria  Colon- 
na ;  but  it  is  Daniele  Ricciarelli,  better  known  from  his  birth- 
place as  Daniele  da  Volterra  (1509-1566),  who  best  profited 
by  his  instructions. 

Volterra's  celebrated  altar-piece,  "  The  Descent  from  the 
Cross,"  is  still  preserved  in  the  church  of  Santa  Trinita  de 
Monte.  It  is  the  one  instance  where  he  has  risen  to  grand- 
eur and  fame,  for  his  frescoes  at  Volterra,  his  "  Baptism  of 
Christ "  in  San  Pietro  in  Montorio,  his  "  David  and  Goliath  " 
in  the  Louvre,  and  his  "  Massacre  of  the  Innocents  "  in  the 


I56*          SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

Uffizi,  Florence,  are  far  less  striking  and  sublime.  To  him 
was  intrusted  the  very  delicate  task  of  covering  the  figures 
of  Michael  Angelo's  "  Last  Judgment "  with  drapery,  in 
order  to  satisfy  the  modesty  of  Pope  Paul  IV.,  who  was  scan- 
dalized by  their  nudity. 

Volterra  survived  Michael  Angelo  scarcely  two  years. 
The  glory  of  the  Florentine  and  Roman  schools  was  waning. 
Even  Titian  was  near  the  close  of  his  long  career.  But,  in 
order  to  understand  more  clearly  how  great  had  been  this 

vanishing  glory,  we  must  retrace  our  steps  awhile,  and  once 

• 
more  view  the  splendor  of  Roman  art  as  illustrated  by  the 

works  of  Raphael. 


RAPHAEL  AND   CORREGGIO.  ,,.. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

RAPHAEL   AND   CORREGGIO. 

No  life  was  ever  written  more  fascinating  and  satisfactory 
than  that  of  Raphael  Santi.  From  whatever  point  we  regard 
it,  we  find  it  so  rounded  and  complete  that  it  seems  more  like 
a  pleasant  romance  than  a  real  human  history.  It  shows  us 
nothing  of  the  usual  contrast  between  a  man's  deserts  and 
his  successes — no  struggle,  no  bitterness,  no  disappoint- 
ments ;  no  shadow  whatever,  except  the  untimely  death, 
which,  after  all,  embalmed  it  in  immortal  youth.  Endowed 
with  countless  gifts  of  Nature — beauty,  genius,  the  sunniest 
and  sweetest  of  dispositions,  purity  and  nobleness  of  char- 
acter, and  a  nameless  charm  which  disarmed  every  enemy 
and  encompassed  him  with  friends — it  is  no  wonder  that  all 
biographies  of  this  favorite  of  fortune  turn  to  eulogies,  and 
that  the  sourest  critics  distill  honey  in  his  praise. 

Born  at  Urbino,  on  the  28th  of  March,  which  was  the 
Good  Friday  of  the  year  1483,  Raphael's  early  home  was 
happy  enough  to  suggest  the  peaceful  domestic  bliss,  so  con- 
stantly expressed  in  his  many  "  Holy  Families."  His  father, 
Giovanni  Santi,  or  Sanzio,  an  Umbrian  artist,  in  very  com- 
fortable circumstances,  doted  upon  his  young  wife  Magia  and 
the  beautiful  boy  of  whom  he  has  left  us  portrait  sketches  at 
three  and  nine  years  old,  when  the  lovely  little  creature  was 


I58  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

just  as  much  the  ideal  child  as  he  afterward  became  the  ideal 
man.  The  family  circle  was  soon  broken  by  Magia's  death ; 
but  the  second  wife  whom  Giovanni  married  reversed,  on 
Raphael's  behalf,  the  popular  attributes  of  step-mothers ;  and 
even  when  his  father  died,  in  1494,  the  love  of  a  parent  was 
supplied  by  a  kind  uncle,  to  whom  Raphael  ever  after  wrote 
with  deep  affection  and  gratitude. 

Like  most  great  geniuses,  Raphael  had  given  indication 
of  talent  almost  from  his  babyhood  ;  and  had  been  instructed 
by  his  father,  whom  he  learned  to  assist  in  painting.  After 
other  desultory  lessons  from  comparatively  obscure  teachers, 
his  step-mother  and  uncle,  in  accordance  with  his  father's 
wishes  for  his  education,  placed  him,  in  1495,  m  tne  studio  , 
of  Perugino.  During  the  eight  years  occupied  by  his  studies 
he  made  rapid  progress,  often  worked  on  important  pictures 
of  that  master,  where  the  traces  of  his  hand  are  still  visible, 
and  thoroughly  acquired  Perugino's  method,  incorporating 
his  merits  into  his  own  style,  but  adding  an  original  tender- 
ness and  grace.  This  Peruginesque  influence  lingered  in  his 
mind  till  his  establishment  at  Rome,  but  it  is  peculiarly 
perceptible  in  the  first  unaided  productions  of  his  youth  at 
Citt£  di  Castello,  and  indeed  in  most  of  his  Florentine  Ma- 
donnas and  Holy  Families.  A  church-flag  and  an  altar-piece 
of  the  crucifixion  are  believed  to  be  his  earliest  independent 
works ;  but  the  most  interesting  effort  of  this  primitive  period 
is  a  little  picture,  now  in  the  London  Gallery,  called  "  The 
Dream  of  a  Young  Knight,"  through  which  we  gain  an  in- 
sight into  Raphael's  secret  thoughts.  It  represents  a  youth- 
ful knight,  to  whom  some  imagine  he  has  given  his  own 
features,  asleep  beneath  a  laurel-tree.  At  his  right  stands  a 


RAPHAEL  AND  CORREGGIO.  ,_ 

0  J 

grave,  noble  figure,  in  violet  robes,  who  offers  him  a  sword 
and  book.  Behind  her  rises  a  rocky  height,  like  the  "  Hill 
Difficulty."  At  his  left  approaches  another  female  form, 
adorned  with  pearls  and  roses,  who  holds  out  to  him  a  flower, 
and  would  allure  him  to  come  and  enjoy  life  with  her  in  the 
rich  landscape  near  them. 

His  first  renowned  undertaking,  at  the  age  of  twenty-one, 
was  the  "  Sposalizio,"  or  "  Marriage  of  the  Virgin,"  which  is 
found  at  present  in  the  Gallery  of  Milan,  ordered  originally 
for  the  Franciscan  church  at  Citta  di  Castello.  It  is  closely 
modeled  on  a  painting  of  the  same  subject  executed  by  Pe- 
rugino  some  years  before,  for  the  Perugian  Cathedral.  The 
faces  are  purer  and  sweeter,  and  the  grouping  a  little  varied, 
but  otherwise  the  composition  is  quite  the  same.  A  "  Christ 
on  the  Mount  of  Olives,"  painted  immediately  afterward  for 
the  Duke  of  Urbino,  is  even  more  Umbrian  and  traditional 
in  treatment.  It  would  seem  as  if  Raphael  had  felt  a  most 
•  unnecessary  timidity  in  trying  his  own  powers.  But  the 
friendship  of  the  Duke  of  Urbino  and  his  family,  and  of  the 
many  celebrated  men  assembled  at  that  court,  encouraged 
the  young  artist ;  and  we  find  an  immense  advance  in  origi- 
nality in  the  very  small  pictures  of  "St.  George  and  the 
Dragon,"  and  the  ."  Combat  of  St.  Michael,"  purchased  by 
his  princely  patron,  but  now  come  into  possession  of  the 
Louvre.  Another  small  "  St.  George  "  is  at  St.  Petersburg. 

Like  all  youths  of  that  day,  Raphael  longed  for  Florence ; 
and  the  kindness  of  his  court-friend,  the  Duchess  von  Sora, 
furnished  him  with  a  letter  of  introduction  to  the  gonfalo- 
nier of  that  city,  who  gave  him  access  to  all  the  best  works 
of  the  best  painters.  The  frescoes  of  Masaccio  and  Filip- 


!6o  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

pino  Lippi,  in  the  Brancacci  Chapel,  particularly  attracted 
him ;  and  we  behold  in  his  own  frescoes,  especially  in  his 
cartoon  of  "  St.  Paul  preaching  at  Athens,"  evidences  of  his 
study  of  those  noble  works.  The  pictures  of  Leonardo  da 
Vinci,  whose  battle  cartoon  was  then  on  exhibition,  also  im- 
pre'ssed  him  with  the  deepest  admiration,  and  many  figures 
and  faces  are  found  copied  in  his  sketch-book.  From  this 
epoch  until  his  call  .to  Rome  in  1508,  his  time  was  divided 
between  Florence,  Perugia,  and  Urbino ;  with  the  exception 
of  a  visit  to  Bologna,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Francia ;  and  his  Umbrian  manner  began  to  merge  into  the 
style  of  what  is  called  his  Florentine  period.  His  first  fres- 
coes adorn  the  church  of  San  Severe,  Perugia,  and  repre- 
sent the  Saviour  seated  between  angels  and  saints,  with  the 
form  of  God  the  Father  and  the  dove  of  the  Holy  Spirit  hov- 
ering above.  But  as  yet  his  genius  appeared  to  adapt  itself 
more  naturally  to  easel-pieces,  particularly  to  groups  of  the 
Madonna  and  Child,  for  which  he  was  even  then  beginning. 
to  be  distinguished.  As  he  painted  during  his  lifetime  Ma- 
donnas enough  to  form  a  gallery  by  themselves,  and  as  every- 
body is  expected  to  be  familiar  with  them,  I  shall  add  short 
lists  of  the  most  celebrated,  dividing  them  into  those  exe- 
cuted before  and  during  his  residence  in.  Rome.  Thus  be- 
tween the  time  of  his  quitting  Perugino  and  the  year  1508, 
we  may  enumerate — 

Two  Madonnas  now  in  the  Berlin  Museum,  in  one  of 
which  the  mother,  with  the  Infant  in  her  lap,  sits  reading  a 
book.  In  the  other,  the  heads  of  St.  Francis  and  St.  Jerome 
are  introduced  behind  the  Virgin  and  Child. 

The  "  Madonna  del  Gran  Duca,"  in  the  Pitti  Gallery, 


RAPHAEL  AND  CORREGGIO.  l6j 

Florence.  The  Virgin,  with  downcast  eyes  and  drapery  of 
red  and  deep  blue-green,  stands  tranquilly  holding  the  Child. 
This  is  one  of  Raphael's  most  beautiful  pictures,  and  shows 
the  effect  of  his  study  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  It  received  its 
name  from  the  fact  that  the  Grand-duke  of  Tuscany,  to 
whom  it  belonged,  prized  it  as  an  inestimable  treasure,  and 
carried  it  with  him  in  all  his  journeys. 

Enthroned  Madonna  in  the  Royal  Palace,  Naples,  sur- 
rounded by  adoring  saints.  The  little  St.  John  stands  before 
the  Virgin  and  Child  on  the  steps  of  the  throne. 

"  Blenheim  Madonna  and  Child,"  enthroned  between  St. 
John  and  St.  Nicholas,  now  at  Blenheim,  England. 

"Madonna  with  the  Palm-Tree,"  owned  by  the  Earl  of 
Ellesmere,  England.  The  Virgin  sits  under  a  palm-tree, 
holding  the  Child.  St.  Joseph  kneels  before  him,  offering 
flowers. 

"  Madonna  del  Cardinello,"  or  "  Madonna  with  the  Gold- 
finch," in  the  tribune  of  the  Uffizi,  Florence.  The  seated 
Madonna  has  a  book  in  her  left  hand,  but  does  not  read. 
The  two  holy  children  stand  before  her,  the  little  St.  John 
presenting  a  goldfinch  to  the  infant  Christ. 

"  Madonna  of  the  Meadow,"  in  the  Belvedere  Gallery, 
Vienna.  The  group  are  in  the  midst  of  a  beautiful  land- 
scape. The  little  Saviour  is  presenting  a  reed  cross  to  St. 
John. 

"  La  Belle  Jardiniere,"  the  famous  Madonna  of  the  Lou- 
vre. The  Virgin  sits  in  a  garden  among  blooming  flowers. 
The  Christ-child  stands  at  her  knee;  and  the  young  St. 
John,  bearing  a  cross  in  his  left  hand,  kneels  in  adoration. 

"  Madonna  della  Casa  Tempi,"  at  Munich.    A  small  pict- 


!62  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

ure  where  the  Virgin  presses  the  Infant  to  her  breast,  and 
appears  to  be  whispering  words  of  endearment. 

"Orleans  Madonna,"  England.  The  Child  sits  in  his 
mother's  lap,  clinging  with  both  hands  to  the  bosom  of  her 
dress,  yet  with  eyes  turned  to  the  spectator,  apparently  look- 
ing out  of  the  picture. 

"Colonna  Madonna,"  now  in  the  Berlin  Museum,  some- 
what the  same  attitude,  but  the  Virgin  turns  away  from  the 
book  she  is  holding,  and  gazes  down  upon  the  Infant. 

"  Madonna,"  or  "  Holy  Family,"  in  the  Munich  Gallery, 
large  in  size,  and  rather  artificially  grouped.  Mary  and  Eliz- 
abeth are  seated  on  the  ground,  with  the  children  before 
them.  Behind  stands  Joseph,  leaning  on  his  staff. 

"Madonna,"  sometimes  called  the  "Beardless  Joseph,"  in 
the  Hermitage,  St.  Petersburg.  The  Child  clings  closely  to 
his  mother's  robe,  but  turns  his  face  toward  St.  Joseph,  who 
is  looking  down  upon  him. 

"  Madonna  of  the  Pink,"  so  named  from  the  flower  which 
the  Virgin  is  giving  the  Child.  The  original  is  probably  lost, 
but  the  picture  is  well  known  through  copies  and  engrav- 
ings. 

"  Madonna  del  Baldacchino,"  in  the  Pitti  Gallery,  Flor- 
ence. A  very  pleasing  Virgin  and  Child,  enthroned  beneath 
a  rich  canopy,  whose  curtains  are  held  by  angels.  St.  Peter 
and  St.  Bruno,  St.  Anthony  and  St.  Augustine,  stand  on  each 
side  of  the  throne.  In  the  foreground  are  two  boy-angels, 
holding  a  parchment-scroll  inscribed  with  notes  of  music. 
This  is  one  of  Raphael's  later  Florentine  productions,  just 
before  his  departure  to  Rome,  when  he  was  on  terms  of  such 
friendly  intimacy  with  Fra  Bartolomeo  that  he  received  his 


RAPHAEL  AND   CORREGGIO.  ^3 

instructions,  and  modeled  his  compositions  after  that  mas- 
ters style. 

To  the  same  interval  of  time,  between  1503  and  1508,  be- 
long several  graceful  portraits,  especially  those  of  Angelo 
Doni,  Maddalena  Strozzi,  and  a  Florentine  lady,  in  the  Pitti 
Palace ;  Maddalena  Doni,  in  the  tribune  of  the  Uffizi ;  Bindo 
Altoviti,  in  Munich ;  the  lovely  youthful  head  sometimes  er- 
roneously spoken  of  as  a  likeness  of  Raphael,  in  the  Louvre; 
and  his  own  portrait,  fragile  and  pensive  looking,  with  black 
robe  and  beretta,  and  brown  eyes,  among  the  artists  of  the 
Uffizi. 

Two  other  works  of  this  period  have  much  artistic  value 
— the  half-length  "  St.  Catharine  of  Alexandria,"  at  present 
in  the  London  Gallery,  and  the  "  Entombment  of  Christ," 
dated  1507,  and  intended  for  a  church  of  Perugia,  but  now 
considered  one  of  the  gems  of  the  Borghese  collection,  Rome. 
The  latter  has  been  highly  praised.  Its  technical  rendering 
is  excellent,  and  the  figure  of  the  dead  Saviour  is  very  for- 
cibly drawn ;  but  the  picture  as  a  whole  does  not  leave  an 
agreeable  impression.  The  winding-sheet  is  too  small,  and 
the  muscular  efforts  of  the  bearers  are  too  great ;  while  we  miss 
the  harmony  and  beauty  which  are  Raphael's  main  charac- 
teristics. It  serves  as  a  link,  however,  between  his  early 
manner  and  the  free  development  of  his  powers  at  Rome. 

Raphael  was  but  twenty-five  years  old  when  summoned  by 
the  despotic  but  art-loving  Pope  Julius  II.  to  the  papal  court. 
Partly  recommended  by  his  rising  reputation,  partly  by  the 
good  offices  of  his  relative  Bramante,  who,  it  is  supposed, 
regarded  him  as  a  useful  rival  to  Michael  Angelo,  he  was 
commissioned  to  decorate  the  state  apartments  of  the  Vati- 


164  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

can,  and  began  his  labors  on  the  rooms  now  known  as  the 
Stanze  of  Raphael.  These  consist  of  a  large  saloon  and 
three  smaller  chambers,  frescoed  on  the  walls  and  ceilings. 
He  did  not  hasten  their  completion,  but  painted  on  them  at 
intervals,  from  the  time  of  his  arrival  till  the  year  of  his 
death. 

The  first  small  room,  called  the  Camera  della  Segnatura, 
is  ornamented  with  allegorical  paintings  of  Theology,  Poetry, 
Philosophy,  and  Jurisprudence;  each  embodied  in  a  noble 
female  form  in  the  ceiling,  and  in  a  corresponding  or  ex- 
planatory fresco  on  each  wall.  Thus  the  fresco  correspond- 
ing to  the  figure  of  Theology  is  the  "  Dispute  on  the  Sacra- 
ment," in  which  the  Church  Militant  is  seen  adoring  the  host 
on  the  altar,  and  the  Church  Triumphant  the  visible  Saviour. 
As  a  pendant  to  Poetry  we  have  the  delineation  of  "  Mount 
Parnassus,"  with  groups  of  poets  below,  and  Apollo  and  the 
Muses  on  the  heights.  Philosophy  is  illustrated  by  the  cele- 
brated fresco  of  the  "  School  of  Athens,"  which  shows  us  a 
splendid  hall  or  porch,  where  Plato,  Aristotle,  Socrates,  Dio- 
genes, Pythagoras,  Archimedes,  Zoroaster,  Ptolemy,  and  their 
disciples,  all  indicate  their  respective  systems  and  sciences. 
Raphael  and  his  master  Perugino  are  beheld  entering  the  hall 
among  the  pupils ;  while  Archimedes  has  the  features  of 
Bramante.  Corresponding  to  Jurisprudence  are  scenes  por- 
traying the  giving  of  civil  and  ecclesiastical  law  by  different 
popes. 

The  next  room,  or  Stanza  of  the  Heliodorus,  has  its  ceil- 
ing divided  among  the  ©Id  Testament  subjects  of  "  God's 
Promise  to  Abraham,"  "  The  Sacrifice  of  Isaac,"  "  Jacob's 
Dream,"  and  "The  Burning  Bush."  The  four  large  paintings 


RAPHAEL  AND  CORREGGIO.  jg- 

on  the  walls  refer  to  the  superhuman  assistance  granted  to 
the  Church  against  her  foes,  and  the  divine  corroboration  of 
her  doctrines,  viz.,  the  "  Miraculous  Expulsion  of  the  Covet- 
ous Syrian  Treasurer,  Heliodorus,  from  the  Temple  at  Jeru- 
salem ;  "  the  "  Mass  of  Bolsena,"  where  a  priest  who  had  lost 
his  faith  in  the  dogma  of  transubstantiation  was  converted 
by  the  bleeding  of  the  consecrated  host;  "  Attila,  King  of  the 
Huns,  deterred  by  the  Apostles  and  the  Pope  from  an  On- 
slaught upon  Rome ;  "  and  the  "  Angelic  Deliverance  of  St. 
Peter  from  Prison."  The  latter  fresco  is  broken  into  several 
parts  by  the  window  of  the  wall ;  but  what  would  naturally 
have  been  thought  a  great  blemish  has  been  so  well  arranged 
by  the  artist  as  to  add  a  new  charm  to  the  composition. 

The  third  room,  or  Stanza  dell'  Incendio,  still  retains  on 
its  ceiling  the  old  frescoes  of  Perugino ;  but  the  large  wall- 
painting  is  from  the  hand  of  Raphael,  and  displays  to  us 
the  "  Incendio  del  Borgo,"  or  a  great  fire  in  one  of  the  sub- 
urbs of  Rome,  which,  according  to  the  legend,  was  extin- 
guished by  the  pope  making  the  sign  of  the  cross.  The  other, 
less  powerful  pictures  are  entitled  "The  Victory  at  Ostia 
over  the  Saracens,"  "  The  Oath  of  Leo  III.,"  and  "  Charle- 
magne crowned  by  Leo  III." 

The  great  saloon,  from  which  these  open,  is  styled  the 
Hall  of  Constantine ;  but  its  decorations  are  attributed  to 
Raphael's  pupils,  and  were  never  finished  till  after  his  death. 
Most  of  the  drawings  from  which  they  were  taken  were  Ra- 
phael's own,  and  depicted  scenes  from  the  life  of  Constantine, 
the  imperial  champion  of  the  Church.  The  chief  fresco  is 
the  "  Battle  between  Constantine  and  Maxentius,"  designed 
by  Raphael,  but  executed  by  Giulio  Romano. 


X66  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

In  the  limited  space  of  one  concise  chapter  it  is  impos- 
sible to  give  a  more  detailed  account  of  these  wonderful 
Stanze  ;  but  the  reader  should  refer  to  the  volumes  of  Pas- 
savant  and  Kugler.  The  most  noteworthy  of  the  paintings 
are  the  "  Dispute  on  the  Sacrament,"  whose  upper  portion 
glows  with  sacred  beauty,  and  in  whose  lower  assemblage  of 
forty-three  figures  we  find  many  interesting  portraits;  the 
"  School  of  Athens,"  also  famous  for  its  portraits,  and  for  its 
calm  and  classic  dignity;  the  "Expulsion  of  Heliodorus,"  a 
most  spirited  and  poetic  scene,  where  the  figure  of  Julius  II. 
is  introduced  as  invoking  vengeance  on  the  offender;  the 
"  Mass  of  Bolsena,"  very  richly  colored  and  effective,  over 
which,  with  the  same  easy  disregard  of  centuries,  Pope  Ju- 
lius is  again  presiding,  in  pontifical  robes;  and  the  "Con- 
flagration in  the  Bbrgo,"  less  attractive  in  color  and  harder 
in  outline,  but  extremely  animated  and  dramatic,  with  many 
nude  figures,  suggestive  of  the  groups  of  Michael  Angelo. 
All  these  frescoes  have  been  grievously  damaged  by  time  and 
neglect.  They  were  restored  by  Carlo  Maratti. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  while  Raphael  was  employed 
in  such  labors  at  the  Vatican,  Michael  Angelo,  but  a  few 
rooms  distant,  was  completing  the  ceiling  of  the  Sistine 
Chapel.  A  strange  glimpse  into  the  varied  interests  of  the 
age  will  also  be  afforded  us  by  the  mention  of  the  fact  that 
just  at  this  time  Martin  Luther,  then  a  simple  monk,  made 
his  eventful  journey  to  Rome,  and  may  perhaps  have  looked 
in  upon  the  two  great  painters  whose  life-aim  must  have 
seemed  to  him  an  incomprehensible  enigma,  as  he  watched 
them  glorifying,  with  all  the  beauty  of  art,  the  triumphs  of 
the  papacy  whose  dominion  he  was  destined  to  overthrow. 


RAPHAEL  AND   CORREGGIO. 


167 


For  the  insatiable  ambition  of  Popes  Julius  II.  and  Leo 
X.  had  resolved  that  religion,  science,  and  art,  should  alike 
be  brought  under  their  rule.  All  things  temporal  and  spirit- 
ual were  to  be  subservient  to  their  splendor. .  On  this  prin- 
ciple no  pomp  of  adornment  was  too  lavish  to  render  their 
cathedrals,  chapels,  and  palaces  worthy  of  their  august 
presence,  and  fitting  monuments  of  their  power.  In  further- 
ance of  this  purpose  the  Loggie,  as  well  as  the  Stanze,  of  the 
Vatican  were  to  be  decorated.  The  task  had  been  begun  by 
Bramante  during  the  reign  of  Julius,  but  was  not  carried  out 
by  Raphael  till  the  pontificate  of  Leo. 

These  Loggie,  leading  from  the  Stanze,  are  built  round  three 
sides  of  the  court  of  St.  Damasus.  They  consist  of  three  sto- 
ries ;  the  two  lower  formed  by  vaulted  arcades,  the  upper  by 
an  elegant  colonnade.  The  paintings  are  in  the  second-story 
gallery.  They  are  not  from  the  master's  own  brush,  but  were 
generally  designed  by  him,  and  done  by  his  pupils,  under 
his  careful  direction.  The  walls  are  covered  with  stuccoes, 
flower  festoons,  and  most  graceful  arabesques;  but  in  the 
thirteen  cupolas  of  the  roof  are  fifty-two  pictures,  about  six 
feet  long  and  four  feet  wide,  taken  from  Scriptural  subjects, 
and  known  as  '*  Raphael's  Bible,"  beginning  with  the  "  Crea- 
tion of  the  World,"  and  ending  with  the  "Last  Supper." 
The  best  of  the  series  are,  "  The  Almighty  dividing  Light 
from  Darkness,"  the  "  Creation  of  the  Firmament,"  and 
the  "Creation  of  Adam  and  Eve."  All  have  been  well  en- 
graved. 

More  important  than  the  Loggie  are  the  cartoons  intended 
as  models  of  tapestries  for  the  Sistine  Chapel.  They  were 
prepared  by  order  of  Leo  X.,  who  wished  to  have  all  the 


1 68  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

lower  walls  of  the  chapel,  below  Michael  Angelo's  frescoes, 
hung  with  rich  tapestry,  which  Raphael  should  design,  and 
which  should  be  copied  by  Flemish  weavers  in  a  fabric  of 
wool,  silk,  and*  gold.  Such  tapestries  were  then  very  highly 
esteemed,  and  many  remarkable  specimens,  woven  for  the 
Medici  family,  still  remain,  in  the  passage  between  the  Uffizi 
and  Pitti  Galleries,  Florence.  The  work  was  intrusted  to 
the  looms  of  Arras,  and  the  pope's  desires  were  gratified; 
but  the  tapestries  themselves  were  carried  away  from  Rome 
by  the  French,  and  greatly  injured.  They  were  finally  restored 
to  the  Vatican,  where  they  have  been  since  kept,  but  are  so 
faded  and  damaged  that  they  give  us  only  feeble  ideas  of 
what  they  were  meant  to  represent.  It  is  the  cartoons  whence 
they  were  taken  which  are  now  most  valuable. 

The  vicissitudes  of  these  celebrated  cartoons  make  it 
almost  a  miracle  that  they  survived  at  all.  They  were  colored 
in  distemper  upon  paper,  and  the  weavers  of  Arras  treated 
them  like  any  other  patterns,  cutting  them  into  strips,  some 
of  which  were  torn  or  lost,  and  when  their  use  was  over 
throwing  them  aside  in  an  old  warehouse.  There  Rubens 
found  seven  of  them,  and  through  his  persuasions  they  were 
purchased  by  Charles  I.  of  England.  During  the  period  of  the 
Commonwealth  and  the  Restoration  they  were  neglected,  and 
were  never  mounted  till  the  reign  of  William  III.,  who,  by 
the  advice  of  Sir  Godfrey  Kneller,  had  the  strips  of  paper 
pasted  together,  stretched  on  canvas,  and  placed  in  Hamp- 
ton Court.  They  are  at  present  exhibited  at  the  South  Ken- 
sington Museum,  London,  and  are  ranked  among  Raphael's 
most  remarkable  compositions. 

Their  size  is  from  fourteen  to  eighteen  feet  in  length,  and 


RAPHAEL  AND  CORREGGIO.  l6g 

about  twelve  in  height,  with  figures  larger  than  life.  Their 
subjects  are  drawn  from  events  in  the  lives  of  St.  Peter  and 
St.  Paul : 

1.  The  Death  of  Ananias,  containing  twenty-four  figures. 
— St.  Peter  stands  among  the  group  of  the  apostles,  lifting  his 
hands  in  reproof  of  Ananias,  who  falls  dead   before   him. 
The  spectators  are  struck  with  consternation.     Sapphira  is 
counting  money  in  the  background. 

2.  Elymas  struck  with  Blindness. — St.  Paul,  standing  grandly 
near  the  front,  utters  the  sentence  of  the  sorcerer,  who  im- 
mediately begins  to  grope  his  way  in  darkness,  to  the  wonder 
of  the  by-standers.     The  proconsul,  seated  on  the  throne,  is 
astounded  and  angered  at  the  miracle. 

3.  The  Healing  of  the  Lame  Man  at  the  Beautiful  Gate  of 
the  Temple. — Here  we  see  a  pillared  portico  open  to  the  sky, 
and  thronged  with  pleasing  groups  of  people  entering  the 
temple,   among  whom   are  some  very  lovely  female  forms. 
St.  Peter  and  St.  John  in  the  centre  are  addressing  the  crip- 
ple, who  looks  up  to  them  with  confidence  and  joy. 

4.  The  Miraculous  Draught  of  Fishes. — Two  boats  on  the 
sea  of  Gennesaret,  each  holding  three  large  figures,  occupy 
the  foreground.     The  disciples  are  striving  with  great  muscu- 
lar exertion  to  draw  in  the  heavily-laden  nets.     St.  Peter,  in 
one  of  the  boats,  is  humbly  kneeling  before  the  seated  Sav- 
iour.   Three  black  cranes  stand  on  the  water's  edge.     These 
birds  and  the  fish  in  the  nets  are  supposed  to  be  the  work  of 
Raphael's  pupil  Giovanni  da  Udine. 

5.  Paul  and  Barnabas  at  Lystra—  The  two  apostles  stand 
under  a  portico,  with  a  temple  in  the  background.    A  proces- 
sion of  citizens  approaches  with  rams  and  oxen  to  sacrifice 


,70  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

before  them.  St.  Paul  rends  his  garments  in  deprecation  of 
their  homage.  A  cripple,  whom  he  has  healed,  has  thrown 
down  his  crutches.  The  scene  is  festive  in  character,  and 
modeled  after  the  antique. 

6.  St.  Paul  preaching  at  Athens. — This   displays   conclu- 
sively, in  various  figures,  the  influence  of  the  Brancacci  fres- 
coes upon  the  mind  of  Raphael.     Philosophers  and  sophists 
are  gathered  below  the  inspired  apostle,  who  eloquently  ad- 
dresses them  from  the  steps  of  a  building.     Behind  them  we 
behold  a  statue  of  Mars,  near  the  entrance  of  a  circular 
temple. 

7.  The  Charge  to  St.  Peter. — The  Saviour  and  his  disciples 
are  grouped  in  a  landscape  by  the  sea  of  Tiberias,  with  a 
flock  of  sheep  near  them.    St.  Peter,  holding  the  keys,  kneels 
before  Christ,  who  extends  one  hand  toward  him,  and  points 
with  the  other  toward  the  flock,  as  if  to   say,   "  Feed   my 
sheep ! " 

The  lost  cartoons,  whose  subjects  are  visible  in  the  tapes- 
tries, were  the  "Stoning  of  Stephen,"  the  "Conversion  of  St. 
Paul,"  and  "  Paul  in  the  Prison  of  Philippi." 

A  later  set  of  tapestries  is  still  preserved  in  the  Vatican, 
for  which  it  is  thought  Raphael  furnished  designs,  but  did 
not  execute  cartoons.  They  illustrate  the  New  Testament 
history.  The  "  Adoration  of  the  Kings/'  "  Adoration  of  the 
Shepherds,"  and  "Resurrection  of  Christ,"  are  very  excel- 
lently and  dramatically  arranged. 

As  a  further  contribution  to  the  glories  of  the  Vatican, 
frescoes  of  the  apostles,  from  Raphael's  designs,  were  copied 
in  chiaro-oscuro  in  an  apartment  now  altered.  It  is  asserted 
that  the  charming  figures  known  as  "  Raphael's  Hours  "  were 


RAPHAEL  AND   CORREGGIO,  iyi 

also  painted  in  an  inner  room  of  the  same  palace ;  but  Pas- 
savant  rejects  the  idea  of  their  genuineness,  and  insists  that 
they  are  engraved  from  mural  remains  of  Pompeii. 

Raphael's  other  Roman  frescoes  will  be  found  in  the 
church  of  Santa  Maria  della  Pace,  above  the  arch  of  a  side- 
chapel  near  the  entrance,  where  he  has  portrayed  four  beau- 
tiful Sibyls,  attended  by  angels ;  in  the  church  of  St.  Agos- 
tino,  where  his  large  figure  of  Isaiah  imitates,  but  is  inferior 
to,  the  "  Prophets  "  of  Michael  Angelo ;  and  in  the  Villa  Far- 
nesina,  then  owned  by  his  wealthy  friend  and  patron,  Agos- 
tino  Chigi,  where  we  see  him  abandoning  religious  motives, 
and  devoting  himself  with  equal  success  to  the  antique  and 
mythological. 

These  fascinating  pictures  display  the  story  of  Psyche  in 
a  light  and  airy  series,  most  graceful  in  conception  and  treat- 
ment. First  we  have  the  jealous  Venus  ;  then  Cupid  pointing 
out  Psyche  to  the  Three  Graces ;  then  Venus  seeking  to  dis- 
cover Psyche,  and  making  her  complaint  to  Jupiter;  then 
Mercury  floating  down  to  bear  the  message  of  Jupiter's 
anger ;  then  Psyche  in  search  of  the  box  of  Proserpina,  and 
afterward  brought  back  by  genii  from  the  depths  of  the 
under-world ;  then  her  meeting  with  Venus ;  the  interview 
between  Cupid  and  Jupiter;  and,  lastly,  Mercury  bearing 
Psyche  to  Olympus. 

In  the  centre  of  the  ceiling  are  the  two  fine  compositions 
of  the  "  Marriage  of  Cupid  and  Psyche,"  and  the  "  Feast  of 
the  Gods."  According  to  his  usual  habit  at  this  period,  the 
sketches  for  the  frescoes  were  made  by  Raphael,  but  the 
greater  part  of  their  execution  was  committed  to  his  pupils. 
The  "  Galatea,"  however,  in  an  adjoining  saloon,  was  painted 


I72  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

by  Raphael  himself,  and  represents  "  the  Goddess  of  the  Sea, 
borne  over  the  waves  in  her  shell :  tritons  and  nymphs  sport 
joyously  round  her;  amorini,  discharging  their  arrows,  ap- 
pear in  the  air  like  angels  of  glory."  These  classic  fables, 
though  pagan  in  sentiment,  and  naturally  in  accordance  with 
the  tastes  of  the  age,  are  neither  coarse  nor  sensual.  If 
Raphael  worshiped  beauty,  it  was  at  least  refined  beauty, 
simple,  sweet,  and  alluring. 

Meanwhile,  amid  these  more  ambitious  labors,  easel-pieces 
were  not  forgotten.  The  oil-paintings  of  Raphael's  Roman 
period  are  among  his  perfect  and  most  finished  productions. 
Even  his  portraits  show  the  advance  in  his  style.  Foremost 
among  these  must  be  noticed  the  likenesses  of  Popes  Julius 
II.  and  Leo  X.,  called  the  best  portraits  in  the  world.  Rep- 
etitions of  both  exist,  but  the  originals  are  at  Florence. 
Portraits  of  the  "  Fornarina,"  or,  as  the  name  implies,  "  Ba- 
ker's Daughter,"  whom  Raphael  is  said  to  have  so  passion- 
ately loved,  are  also  of  extreme  interest.  The  most  authen- 
tic is  in  the  Barberini  collection,  Rome ;  very  lightly  draped, 
with  a  shawl  twisted  round  her  head,  and  a  golden  bracelet 
on  her  arm  inscribed  with  Raphael's  name.  Her  eyes  are 
dark  and  bold,  and  her  features  beam  with  material,  but 
not  with  intellectual,  beauty.  Another  portrait,  with  the  same 
title,  in  the  tribune  of  the  Ufnzi,  is  decidedly  nobler.  It  is 
a  much  more  pleasing  face,  with  flowing  hair,  and  has  fur 
trimming,  or  a  panther's  skin,  thrown  over  the  left  shoulder. 
It  is,  however,  not  only  uncertain  whether  it  is  the  Fornarina, 
but  even  whether  it  is  by  Raphael  at  all.  Some  ascribe  it  to 
Giorgione,  others  to  Sebastian  del  Piombo.  Indeed,  all  ac- 
counts of  the  Fornarina  are  very  dubious.  We  know  there 


GALATEA  (Raphael). 


p.  i;a. 


RAPHAEL  AND   CORREGGIO. 

I  O 

was  some  such  person  or  persons  with  whom  Raphael  was  in 
love ;  but  whether  she  was  the  daughter  of  a  baker,  or  what 
was  her  precise  station  in  life,  or  how  long  the  passion  lasted, 
are  unsettled  questions.  Passavant  gives  her  the  name  of 
Margarita. 

The  "  Violin-Player,"  in  the  Sciarra  Palace,  Rome,  is  an-' 
other  portrait-picture,  but  is  not  the  likeness  of  Raphael, 
though  the  countenance  resembles  his.  It  is  the  figure  of  a 
youth,  not  quite  half-length,  in  a  cap  and  mantle,  holding  in 
his  hand  a  few  flowers  and  the  bow  of  a  violin,  and  looking 
over  his  shoulder  at  the  spectator. 

A  selected  list  of  Raphael's  famous  Madonnas  and  Holy 
Families,  from  his  arrival  at  Rome  until  his  death,  may  now 
be  recorded : 

"Madonna  Casa  d'Alba,"  or  "Madonna  of  the  Duke  of 
Alba,"  a  round  picture,  in  the  Hermitage,  St.  Petersburg. — 
The  Virgin,  with  the  infant  Saviour  on  her  lap,  sits  in  the 
foreground  of  a  landscape,  watching  the  little  St.  John,  who 
kneels  before  them,  receiving  a  cross  from  the  hands  of 
Christ. 

"  La  Vierge  au  Diademe,"  in  the  Louvre. — The  Madonna 
bends  above  the  sleeping  Child,  and  lifts  a  veil  which  had 
covered  him.  St.  John,  with  clasped  hands,  kneels  beside 
her.  This  is  also  called  "La  Vierge  au  Linge,"  or  "Ma- 
donna of  the  Veil."  It  has  been  sometimes  repeated,  with 
slight  variations. 

"  Garvagh  Madonna,"  or  "  Madonna  of  the  Aldobrandini 
Family,"  National  Gallery,  London. — In  front  of  a  landscape 
is  the  pillar  of  an  arcade,  before  which  the  Virgin  is  sitting. 
With  one  arm  she  holds  the  Child,  and  with  the  other  draws 


174 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


forward  St.  John,  who  is  reaching  up  to  take  the  flower  which 
Jesus  offers  him. 

"  Bridgewater  Madonna,"  in  the  Bridgewater  Gallery,  Lon- 
don.— The  Child  is  stretched  on  his  mother's  lap,  gazing  ten- 
derly up  into  her  eyes.  This  has  also  been  repeated. 

"Madonna  della  Tenda,"  at  Munich  and  Turin. — So 
named  from  the  curtain  in  the  background.  Very  similar  in 
arrangement  to  the  celebrated  "  Seggiola,"  but  the  face  of 
the  Virgin  is  more  in  profile. 

"Madonna  del  Pesce,"  or  "Madonna  of  the  Fish,"  now 
at  Madrid. — This  was  originally  painted  as  an  altar-piece  for 
St.  Domenico,  Naples.  The  Virgin  and  Child  are  enthroned 
in  the  centre.  At  their  left  is  St.  Jerome,  reading  from  a 
book.  His  lion  lies  at  his  feet.  On  the  right  the  archangel 
Raphael  presents  the  young  Tobit,  who  is  holding  a  fish. 

"  Vierge  aux  Candelabres,"  in  England. — A  circular  pict- 
ure, where  we  see  a  calm,  sweet-faced  Madonna  and  Child, 
between  two  torch-bearing  angels.  Much  of  the  execution 
of  this  painting  belongs  to  Raphael's  pupils.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  the  larger 

"  Madonna  del  Impannata,"  in  the  Pitti  Gallery,  Florence. 
This  takes  its  title  from  the  window  behind  the  figures.  The 
Child,  placed  as  usual  on  his  mother's  lap,  turns  his  face 
toward  two  kneeling  women.  St.  John,  sitting  at  the  side  of 
the  picture,  points  to  the  Holy  Infant. 

"Madonna  della  Sedia,"  or  "Seggiola  Madonna,"  often 
called  the  "Virgin  of  the  Chair." — The  spectator  sees  the 
full  face  of  the  seated  Virgin,  who  bends  her  head  toward  the 
Child  and  clasps  him  closely  to  her  bosom.  A  very  lovely  little 
St.  John,  with  folded  hands,  stands  adoringly  behind  them. 


RAPHAEL  AND  CORREGGIO.  !75 

Madonna  called  "  The  Pearl,"  a  Holy  Family  in  the  Ma- 
drid Gallery ;  so  termed  because  King  Philip  IV.  of  Spain 
exclaimed,  after  purchasing  it,  "  This  is  my  pearl !  " — One  of 
Raphael's  richest  and  most  pleasing  compositions,  thought  by 
many  critics  to  be  the  best  of  all  his  Holy  Families.  The 
Child,  on  the  Virgin's  lap,  rests  one  foot  upon  a  cradle  in 
the  foreground,  and  receives  from  the  young  St.  John  the 
fruits  which  the  latter  carries  in  his  panther's  skin.  The 
aged  St.  Elizabeth  looks  on  in  worship. 

"  Madonna  of  Francis  I.,"  in  the  Louvre. — Another 
charming  Holy  Family,  where  the  Child  is  springing  from  a 
cradle  into  his  mother's  arms.  Two  angels  are  introduced, 
one  uplifting  a  crown  of  flowers.  St.  Elizabeth  folds  the  hands 
of  St.  John.  Joseph  sits  contemplatively  in  the  background. 

"  Madonna,"  or  "  Holy  Family,"  also  in  the  Louvre ; 
much  smaller  in  size. — The  infant  Saviour  stands  on  the  edge 
of  a  cradle  beside  his  mother,  embracing  St.  John.  St.  Eliza- 
beth is  on  the  other  side.  This  may  rather  be  described  as 
the  work  of  Giulio  Romano  than  of  Raphael. 

"  Madonna  col  Divino  Amore,"  or  "  Madonna  of  Divine 
Love,"  in  the  Naples  Museum. — The  Child,  on  his  mother's 
knee,  with  arm  guided  by  St.  Elizabeth,  blesses  St.  John, 
who  kneels  before  him,  bearing  the  cross.  The  Virgin  gazes 
with  folded  hands,  and  an  expression  of  rapt  adoration. 

"  Foligno  Madonna,"  or  "  La  Vierge  au  Donatoire,"  now 
placed  next  to  the  Transfiguration  in  the  Vatican. — Painted 
as  a  votive  picture  for  Sigismondi  Conti,  secretary  of  Pope 
Julius  II.,  and  hung  in  the  church  of  Ara  Cceli,  Rome ;  but 
afterward  removed  to  Foligno,  whence  it  was  carried  by  the 
French,  and  subsequently  restored  to  the  Vatican.  It  was 


j76  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

ordered  by  Sigismondi  as  a  thank-offering  for  his  escape  from 
a  thunder-bolt  or  meteor.  The  figure  kneeling  in  front,  to 
the  right  of  the  observer,  is  the  portrait  of  Sigismondi  him- 
self, presented  by  St.  Jerome  to  the  Virgin  and  Child  en- 
throned in  glory  above  him,  with  a  rainbow  beneath  their 
feet.  On  the  opposite  side  are  St.  Francis  and  St.  John  Bap- 
tist, pointing  to  the  Madonna.  Just  in  front  stands  a  boy- 
angel,  with  upturned  face,  holding  a  tablet.  A  landscape 
background  displays  the  city  of  Foligno,  overshadowed  by  a 
storm-cloud  and  falling  meteor. 

"  Sistine  Madonna,"  in  the  Dresden  Gallery,  the  last  and 
most  beautiful  of  all  Raphael's  Virgins. — She  stands  en- 
throned upon  the  clouds,  with  her  Son  in  her  arms.  In  the 
sky  around  her  innumerable  cherub-heads  melt  into  the  blue, 
transparent  atmosphere.  The  aged  St.  Sixtus  and  the  fair 
young  St.  Barbara  kneel  below  her,  to  offer  "  the  love  and 
worship  of  the  Holy  Catholic  Church."  On  a  parapet  at  the 
bottom  the  well-known  boy  cherubs  lean  in  adoration.  Two 
green  curtains,  painted  at  the  top,  appear  to  have  been  drawn 
back  to  open  the  scene  to  our  gaze.  It  has  been  conjectured 
that  this  picture  was  intended  to  be  borne  as  a  kind  of  stand- 
ard in  a  religious  procession.  It  was,  however,  placed  above 
the  altar  of  St.  Sixtus  at  Piacenza,  where  it  remained  till 
transferred  to  Dresden. 

This  catalogue,  together  with  the  one  previously  given,  is 
sufficiently  full  for  purposes  of  reference.  The  Madonnas 
omitted  are  principally  in  the  possession  of  noblemen,  where 
they  can  seldom  be  seen  by  travelers,  or  in  the  Madrid  Gal- 
lery, where  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  distinguish  between  the 
work  of  Raphael  and  that  of  his  pupils.  The  "  Madonna  of 


FOLIGNO  MADONNA  (Raphael). 


p.  176. 


RAPHAEL  AND  CORREGGIO.  I7? 

the  Well,"  attributed  to  Raphael,  in  the  tribune  of  the  Uffizi, 
Florence,  is  more  probably  supposed  to  be  from  the  hand  of 
Francia  Bigio. 

The  "  Madonna  of  Francis  I."  is  not  the  only  specimen 
of  Raphael's  talents  secured  by  the  French  monarch.  Two 
others  of  great  beauty  adorn  the  Louvre — the  "  St.  Michael," 
transfixing  Satan  with  his  spear ;  and  the  "  St.  Margaret  and 
the  Dragon,"  one  of  the  sweetest  and  purest  of  sacred  figures, 
stepping  lightly  forward  above  the  prostrate  monster,  with 
blue  robes,  golden  hair,  and  palm-branch.  Another  smaller 
"  St.  Margaret,"  by  Giulio  Romano,  is  found  at  Vienna,  with 
a  crucifix  instead  of  palm. 

A  "  Vision  of  Ezekiel,"  small,  but  admirably  painted,  rep- 
resenting the  Almighty  as  seen  by  the  prophet,  hangs  in  the 
Pitti  Palace,  Florence.  But  three  splendid  altar-pieces  remain 
to  be  mentioned,  as  completing  the  number  of  Raphael's 
important  works :  the  "  St.  Cecilia,"  in  the  gallery  of  Bologna, 
painted  about  1516,  and  very  familiar  to  all  lovers  of  art, 
showing  us  the  saint,  holding  a  small  organ  and  gazing  up 
into  heaven,  with  broken  instruments  of  music  at  her  feet, 
and  St.  John,  St.  Augustine,  St.  Paul,  and  Mary  Magdalen, 
near  her;  the  "Lo  Spasimo  di  Sicilia,"  executed  for  the  con- 
vent of  Santa  Maria  della  Spasimo  at  Palermo,  but  now  in  the 
museum  at  Madrid,  which  gives  us  the  procession  to  Calvary, 
with  Christ  sinking  beneath  the  cross,  while  the  fainting 
Virgin  stretches  out  her  hands  toward  him  in  an  agony  of 
sympathy ;  and,  lastly,  the  "  Transfiguration  on  Mount  Ta- 
bor," the  crowning  effort  of  his  maturity,  left  unfinished  by 
his  death,  and  mournfully  suspended  over  his  bier  as  the 
final  trophy  of  his  genius. 


j*8  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

It  seems  impossible  to  realize  that  the  vast  amount  of  labor 
briefly  sketched  in  the  preceding  pages  should  have  been  ac- 
complished by  any  man,  however  gifted,  in  the  short  space  of 
thirty-seven  years.  Such  a  fact  suffices  of  itself  to  prove  Ra- 
phael's constant  and  unwearied  industry  and  devotion  to  his 
art.  He  loved  beauty  for  its  own  sake,  and  its  creation  af- 
forded him  ceaseless  delight.  He  was  fond  of  magnificence 
and  pleasure,  and  enjoyed  the  luxury  of  his  Roman  house,  the 
adornment  of  his  villa,  the  applause  of  his  friends,  and  the 
attractions  of  society.  The  courtier  of  those  days  was  per- 
mitted a  license  which  public  opinion  no  longer  tolerates ; 
but,  judged  by  the  standards  of  his  age,  Raphael's  life  was 
pure  and  stainless ;  genial,  yet  free  from  vice.  The  numerous 
band  of  pupils  who  formed  his  daily  retinue  loved  him  with 
ardent  affection,  his  friends  were  cheered  by  his  presence  as 
by  the  sunshine,  and  his  very  rivals  were  propitiated  by  his 
kindness  and  amiability.  Even  Michael  Angelo  might  dis- 
dain, but  could  not  quarrel  with  him.  Enriched  and  flattered 
by  his  patrons,  he  was  appointed  Architect  of  St.  Peter's 
Church,  and  offered  a  most  advantageous  alliance  with  the 
niece  of  Cardinal  Bibiena ;  but  his  heart  did  not  seem  inter- 
ested in  the  marriage,  and,  after  putting  it  off  from  time  to 
time,  the  lady  died,  and  he  bore  her  loss  with  resignation. 
His  own  death  was  occasioned  by  a  violent  fever,  treated 
with  great  lack  of  medical  skill.  He  expired  on  Good  Fri- 
day, the  6th  of  April,  1520,  and  was  buried  with  much  pomp 
in  the  Pantheon.  "No  eye,"  says  Vasari,  "was  tearless." 
He  requested  in  his  will  that  the  remains  of  Maria  di  Bibiena 
should  be  laid  beside  his  own,  as  his  betrothed.  In  the  year 
1833  some  doubt  was  raised  as  to  the  exact  locality  of  his 


RAPHAEL  AND   GORREGGIO.  I?Q 

resting-place ;  and  his  body  was  exhumed  and  found  entire. 
A  second  funeral  ceremony  followed,  and  he  was  once  more 
interred  in  the  same  spot,  in  a  marble  sarcophagus  presented 
by  the  pope. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  criticise  either  his  abilities  or  his 
.  works,  as  the  judgment  of  posterity  has  been  fixed,  and 
authors  of  every  nation  have  exhausted  language  in  their 
panegyrics  of  his  pictures.  We  can  therefore  turn  without 
delay  to  his  'successor  Correggio,  who,  though  he  could  not 
equal  Raphael  in  genius,  was  yet  a  master  of  delicate  love- 
liness, graceful  sentiment,  forcible  drawing,  and  transparent 
interfusion  of  light  and  shade.  If  Raphael's  style  was  epical, 
that  of  Correggio  may  be  called  lyrical ;  and  the  same  qualities 
of  harmony,  smoothness,  tenderness,  finish,  and  easily-flow- 
ing rhythm,  which  constitute  the  charm  of  a  beautiful  poem, 
lend  their  fascination  to  his  paintings. 

The  father  of  Correggio  was  Pelegrino  Allegri,  a  merchant 
of  moderate  means,  residing  not  far  from  Ferrara,  in  the  little 
town  of  Correggio  or  Reggio,  which  has  ever  since  given  its 
name  to  his  artist  son,  whose  family,  title  was  really  Antonio 
Allegri.  Antonio  was  born  in  1494,  about  the  time  when 
Leonardo  da  Vinci  was  founding  his  art  academy  in  Milan, 
and  Andrea  Mantegua  was  still  famous  at  Mantua.  An 
uncle,  Lorenzo  Allegri,  probably  gave  him  some  rudimentary 
instruction,  but  he  may  also  have  learned  drawing  and  per- 
spective in  the  school  which  Mantegua's  son  continued  after 
his  father's  death,  and  thus  have  acquired  a  love  of  fore- 
shortening, which,  joined  to  the  deep  effect  produced  upon 
his  mind  by  his  solitary  study  of  a  few  of  Leonardo's  pict- 
ures, so  directed  his  great  natural  talents  that,  when  but 


jgo  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

eighteen  or  twenty,  he  was  able  to  produce  the  large  and 
masterly  composition  of  the  "Madonna  of  St.  Francis,"  now 
in  the  Dresden  Gallery,  which  seems  to  be  his  earliest  extant 
work.  It  did  not,  of  course,  appear  as  remarkable  to  the 
monks  of  the  Franciscan  convent  at  Correggio,  for  which  it  was 
designed,  as  it  does  to  us,  for  they  paid  him  only  about  seven- 
ty-five dollars  for  his  labor ;  but  we  already  see  in  it  the  soft 
and  melting  color,  delicate  gradations  of  shadow,  and  delight 
in  physical  beauty,  which  ever  characterized  him.  The  en- 
throned Madonna  and  Child  are  in  a  golden  glory  above  Sts. 
Francis,  Anthony,  John  Baptist,  and  Catharine.  Not  Raphael 
himself,  at  the  age  of  twenty,  could  have  surpassed  this  altar- 
piece  :  yet  it  is  said  that  Correggio 's  most  effective  inspiration 
came  from  the  sight  of  Raphael's  "St.  Cecilia,"  before  which 
he  uttered  his  celebrated  exclamation,  "I  too  am  a  painter! " 
As  a  pendant  to  this  anecdote  we  may  record  the  subsequent 
exclamation  of  Titian,  who,  beholding  the  works  of  Correggio 
at  Parma,  modestly  remarked,  "Were  I  not  Titian,  I  should 
desire  to  be  Correggio !  " 

A  "  Crucifixion  "  at  Parma,  and  two  pictures  in  the  trib- 
une of  the  Uffizi,  Florence,  may,  like  the  "  St.  Francis  Ma- 
donna," be  referred  to  Antonio's  youthful  years.  The  last  of 
these  pictures,  a  "  Madonna  adoring  the  Child,"  who  lies  on 
the  ground  before  her,  is  a  favorite  with  travelers,  but  must 
be  allowed  to  exhibit,  in  the  figure  of  the  Virgin,  some  of 
the  tendency  to  affectation  and  exaggeration  which  was  Cor- 
reggio's  only  fault.  A  more  important  undertaking  was 
intrusted  to  him  in  1518,  in  the  commission  to  fresco  a  saloon 
of  the  convent  of  San  Paolo  at  Parma.  The  choice  of  sub- 
jects, indeed,  may  be  considered  rather  extraordinary  for  a 


RAPHAEL  AND   CORREGGIO.  l8l 

holy  abbess  and  a  family  of  nuns ;  but  posterity  cannot  but 
feel  obliged  to  them  for  having  evoked  such  exquisite  mytho- 
logical beauties  as  "Diana  returning  from  the  Chase,"  the 
"Three  Graces,"  "Adonis,"  " Endymion," etc.,  and  particular- 
ly the  vaulted  ceiling  painted  as  a  vine-arbor,  with  charming 
little  genii  peeping  down  through  the  grape-clusters. 

His  friend  the  abbess,  who  doubtless  appreciated  his 
efforts  for  her  entertainment,  procured  for  him  soon  after- 
ward another  and  more  remunerative  appointment  as  deco- 
rator of  the  cupola  of  the  church  of  San  Giovanni.  There 
he  depicted  the  "  Ascension  of  Christ,"  with  twelve  adoring 
apostles  below.  This,  however,  was  simply  an  introduction 
to  his  greater  and  more  magnificent  fresco  of  the  "  Assump- 
tion of  the  Virgin,"  in  the  cupola  of  the  Parma  Duomo,  where 
we  still  perceive  "  the  Madonna  soaring  into  heaven,  while 
Christ  descends  from  his  throne  in  haste  to  meet  her.  An 
innumerable  host  of  saints  and  angels,  rejoicing  and  singing 
hymns  of  triumph,  surround  these  principal  personages. 
Lower  down  in  a  circle  stand  the  apostles ;  and,  lower  still, 
genii  bearing  candelabra  and  swinging  censers.  In  lunettes 
below  are  the  four  evangelists ;  the  figure  of  St.  John  being 
one  of  the  finest."  Some  of  the  cartoons  for  the  fresco, 
drawn  in  chalk,  were  discovered  in  a  garret  in  the  city  of 
Parma,  and  were  purchased  by  the  British  Museum.  This 
bold  composition,  which  occupied  him  four  years,  is  a  strange 
blending  of  heavenly  loveliness,  magical  power  of  light  and 
shade,  and  ecstatic  figures,  so  forcibly  foreshortened  that, 
gazing  upward,  one  beholds  such  a  grand  confusion  of  limbs 
as  gave  rise  to  the  Parmese  criticism  that  Correggio  had 
served  them  with  a  fricassee  of  frogs. 


!82  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

Just  previous  to  the  execution  of  the  cathedral-dome, 
Correggio  had  been  invited  to  Mantua,  where  Duke  Gonzaga 
employed  him  on  a  number  of  classical  easel-pictures.  To 
these  commissions  we  owe  the  "Education  of  Cupid,'  or 
"  Mercury  teaching  Cupid  to  read,"  in  the  London  Gallery ; 
the  "Jupiter  and  Antiope,"  in  the  Louvre;  the  "lo,"  and 
"Leda  with  the  Swan,"  of  the  Berlin  Museum;"  and  the 
"  Danae,"  of  the  Borghese  Palace,  Rome.  All  these  paintings 
exhibit  the  softness,  tenderness,  flowing  outlines,  and  ai.y 
grace,  which  were  natural  to  the  artist  whatever  subject  might 
be  delineated  by  his  brush.  The  Duke  of  Orleans,  who  at 
one  time  owned  two  or  three  of  these  pictures,  so  disliked 
the  expression  of  lo's  head  that  he  had  it  cut  out  of  the  can- 
vas, and  burned.  This  summary  process  soothed  his  moral 
sense;  but  the  decapitation  was  afterward  remedied,  as  far 
as  possible,  by  the  French  artist  Prud'hon,  who  painted  a 
new  head.  A  copy  or  repetition  of  the  "  lo  "  is  in  the  Gallery 
of  Vienna.  The  "  Danae  "  of  the  Borghese,  a  fair  female  form, 
reclining  on  her  couch,  amid  the  golden  shower,  is  best 
known  by  the  two  fascinating  little  Cupids  in  the  foreground, 
trying  their  arrows  on  a  stone. 

The  sacred  easel-pieces  of  Correggio  are  even  more  lovely 
and  attractive.  They  are,  in  fact,  the  main  inducement  to  the 
tourist  to  visit  Parma,  as  we  there  find  not  only  his  frescoes, 
including  the  "Madonna  della  Scala,"  but  several  oil-paint- 
ings, especially  the  Madonna  and  Child  spoken  of  as  the 
"  Madonna  della  Scodella,"  from  the  cup  which  the  Virgin 
is  lifting ;  and  the  "  St.  Jerome  presenting  his  Translation  of 
the  Scriptures  to  the  Virgin,"  styled  "II  Giorno,"  or  the 
"Day,"  from  the  clear,  brilliant  daylight  diffused  over  the 


MADONNA  DELLA  SCALA  (Correggio). 


p.  183. 


RAPHAEL  AND  CORREGGIO.  T», 

103 

painting,  in  contrast  to  the  celebrated  composition  at  Dres- 
den known  as  the  "  Santa  Notte,"  or  "  Holy  Night " — a  rep- 
resentation of  the  dark  and  shadowy  scene  of  the  Nativity, 
illuminated  only  by  the  celestial  radiance  of  the  Sacred  Babe 
and  the  angelic  choir. 

Besides  the  "  Santa  Notte,"  and  the  early  "  Madonna  of 
St.  Francis,"  the  Dresden  Gallery  contains  two  large  altar- 
pieces,  called  the  "  Madonna  of  St.  Sebastian,"  and  the  "  Ma- 
donna of  St.  George,"  from  the  attendant  saints  who  look  up 
in  fervent  worship  to  the  enthroned  Virgin  and  Child.  The 
graceful  angels  and  children  are  peculiarly  charming.  In  one 
of  the  cabinets  is  an  admirable  portrait,  very  highly-finished, 
grave,  and  expressive,  catalogued  as  the  portrait  of  "  Correg- 
gio's  Physician  ;  "  while  not  far  distant  from  it  is  the  "  Read- 
ing Magdalen,"  one  of  the  most  bewitching  creations  of  art. 
She  lies  upon  the  ground,  her  blue  drapery  relieved  against 
the  sombre  green  of  the  landscape.  Her  head  is  leaning  on 
her  hand,  and  her  golden  hair  floats  down  her  shoulders  and 
veils  her  bosom.  Her  drooping  eyes  are  attentively  fixed 
upon  her  book,  and  her  alabaster  vase  is  on  the  turf  beside 
her.  The  poet  might  well  exclaim : 

" .  .  .  .  What  a  fair  picture ! 
The  dark,  o'erhanging  shade,  the  long  fair  hair, 
The  delicate  white  skin,  the  azure  robe. 
The  full,  luxuriant  life,  the  grim  death's  head, 
The  tender  womanhood,  and  the  great  book  : 
These  various  contrasts  have  you  cunningly 
Wrought  into  sweetest  harmony." 

This  little  gem  of  the  gallery,  so  exquisitely  painted  (yet  less 
than  two  feet  long)  has  always  found  most  enthusiastic  ad- 
mirers. We  are  told  that  the  princes  of  Este  carried  it  with 


j84  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

them  in  all  their  journeys,  and  that  the  King  of  Poland  kept 
it  under  lock  and  key,  in  a  frame  of  jeweled  silver.  It  was 
once  stolen  from  the  Dresden  collection,  and  is  now  securely 
fastened  to  the  wall. 

In  the  National  Gallery,  London,  a  few  Correggios  are 
treasured — the  "  Education  of  Cupid,"  already  noticed ;  a 
small  Holy  Family,  sometimes  named  "La  Vierge  au  Panier," 
or  the  "  Virgin  of  the  Basket ; "  an  "  Ecce  Homo,"  and 
"  Christ  on  the  Mount  of  Olives,"  both  of  which  are  over- 
strained and  painful  figures,  though  the  technical  manage- 
ment of  the  last  is  very  remarkable ;  the  Saviour  being  lighted 
from  heaven,  and  the  attendant  angel  by  light  reflected  from 
the  person  of  the  Lord.  There  are  also  two  studies  of  "An- 
gels' Heads,"  possibly  intended  for  a  Parmese  fresco.  They 
have  the  liquid  eyes,  dim  half-smile,  and  blended  chiaro- 
oscuro  so  indicative  of  Correggio's  handiwork. 

The  Louvre  has  retained  only  the  "  Jupiter  and  Antiope," 
and  the  famous  "Marriage  of  St.  Catharine."  A  similar 
"  Marriage  "  is  in  the  Naples  Museum,  which  has  also  the 
"  Hagar  in  the  Desert,"  and  the  "  Repose  in  Egypt,"  often 
styled  the  "  Zingarella  Madonna,"  from  the  gypsy-like  ar- 
rangement of  the  turbaned  head-dress.  His  wife  is  believed 
to  have  been  his  model  for  the  Virgin.  The  Madrid  Gallery 
has  a  much-commended  "  Noli  me  tangere,"  or  "  Appearance 
of  Christ  to  the  Magdalen  after  the  Resurrection."  Viardot 
remarks :  "  Nothing  in  the  work  of  the  pencil  can  surpass  the 
execution  of  that  fine  figure,  the  soft  tints  and  harmonious 
colors  which  stand  out  against  the  deep  blue  of  the  sky  and 
the  dark  green  of  a  thick  foliage." 

The  life  and  character  of  Correggio  had  the  gentleness 


RAPHAEL  AND  CORREGGIO.  o 

I85 

and  suavity,  but  not  the  animation,  of  his  pictures.  He  was 
mild  and  unassuming,  and  did  not  realize  his  own  superi- 
ority ;  founded  no  school,  and  did  not  allow  himself  to  be 
much  troubled  by  ambition.  His  years  were  passed  in  com- 
parative retirement,  and  his  experience  of  the  world  was 
'  limited  to  a  narrow  province.  Raphael  Mengs  asserts  that 
he  visited  Rome,  but  his  other  critics  have  expressed  a 
contrary  opinion.  He  was  miserably  compensated  for  his 
works  in  oil.  Even  the  sublime  "  Nativity,"  whose  value  is 
now  counted  by  thousands,  is  stated  to  have  originally 
brought  him  less  than  forty  dollars.  The  system  of  payment 
at  Parma  must  have  been,  to  say  the  least,  peculiar;  as 
modern  researches  have  chanced  to  find  the  record  of  the 
painting  of  the  famous  altar-piece  "II  Giorno,"  which  was 
ordered  by  a  wealthy  widow  lady,  who  agreed  to  give  the 
artist  forty-seven  sequins  (one  hundred  and  ten  dollars),  to 
furnish  him  with  a  six  months'  supply  of  provisions,  and  to 
present  him  in  addition  with  "two  loads  of  wood,  several 
measures  of  wheat,  and  a  fat  pig." 

Yet  the  old  theory  of  poverty  and  distress  which  led  to 
the  story  (repeated  even  by  Vasari)  of  Correggio's  destitution, 
penuriousness,  and  wretched  death,  is  now  exploded.  Though 
not  rich,  or  very  famous  in  his  lifetime,  he  is  believed  to 
have  been  comfortable  and  contented,  of  a  cheerful  and  ami- 
able disposition,  and  quite  unfit  for  the  hero  of  the  melan- 
choly German  tragedy  which  has  been  written  upon  his  sup- 
posed misfortunes.  His  pictures  are  full  of  movement  and 
joy,  and  reveal  a  mind  which  must  have  had  a  spring  of 
pleasure  within  itself.  His  talents  were  not  only  remarkable 
in  degree,  but  original  in  kind.  He  had  scarcely  any  great 


X86  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS   OF  PAINTING. 

models  of  art  from  which  to  study ;  but  grace,  elegance,  and 
serene  beauty,  appeared  to  come  to  him  by  intuition.  No 
painter  of  any  age  has  equaled  him  in  chiaro-oscuro,  and  none 
but  Raphael  can  compete  with  him  in  simple  sweetness  and 
loveliness.  He  was  particularly  happy  in  his  delineations  of 
sportive,  smiling  children,  whose  attitudes  are  usually  as  ex- 
pressive as  their  faces. 

He  died,  like  Raphael,  of  fever,  after  a  few  days'  illness, 
on  ths  5th  of  March,  1534,  and  was  buried  in  his  family 
sepulchre  in  the  Franciscan  convent  at  Reggio. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

PAINTING    IN    VENICE. 

THOUGH  the  perfect  art  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Michael 
Angelo,  and  Raphael,  grew  slowly  into  maturity  from  its 
Tuscan  and  Umbrian  root,  there  was  one  Italian  province 
where  genius  seemed  to  burst  into  sudden  bloom  and  to  luxu- 
riate in  free  magnificence.  Venice,  so  given  over  to  Byzan- 
tine influences  that  she  might  for  several  centuries  have  been 
described  as  only  an  Eastern  art-colony,  roused  herself  at 
last,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  through  the  talents  of  the  Bel- 
lini family,  and  founded  a  school  of  painting,  destined  within 
the  next  two  hundred  years  to  surpass  all  others  in  brilliancy, 
and  to  rival  that  of  Florence,  in  ability. 

Few  critics  of  Venetian  art  push  their  researches  behind 
the  histories  of  Jacopo  Bellini,  and  his  sons  Gentile  and 
Gian;  yet  we  should  not  altogether  ignore  what  had  been 
done  and  was  doing  on  the  suburban  island  of  Murano,  so 
early  noted  for  its  glass-manufactories,  and  for  the  labors  of 
a  few  enterprising  artists  then  spoken  of  as  Andrea,  Giovanni, 
and  Antonio  da  Murano,  who  are  believed  to  have  had  their 
first  lessons  from  Flemish  masters,  and  who  are  still  repre- 
sented by  pictures  among  the  antique  treasures  of  the  Venice 
Academy.  According  to  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle,  the  name 


!88  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

of  Vivarini  was  assumed  by  a  younger  painter,  Bartolomeo, 
who  thus  originated  the  traditional  Vivarini  family,  so  well 
known  in  ancient  art-annals.  These  partners  worked  zealous- 
ly together,  blending,  as  far  as  they  were  able,  the  manner 
of  the  Umbrian  Gentile  da  Fabriano  with  their  German-like 
hardness  and  accuracy,  and  adopting,  about  1473,  the  prac- 
tice of  oil-painting,  which  Antonello  da  Messina  introduced 
from  Flanders.  The  earliest  Venetian  picture  in  oils  is  said 
to  be  from  the  hand  of  Bartolomeo  Vivarini. 

Just  previous  to  this  epoch,  the  native  historian  and 
artist  Zanetti  alludes  to  a  certain  Lorenzo,  who  was  asso- 
ciated with  Antonio  da  Murano  in  the  production  of  an 
"  Ancona,"or  altar-piece  in  compartments,  now  in  the  gallery 
of  Venice.  Similar  mention  is  made  of  one  Paulus,  who 
painted  in  1346,  but  the  specimens  of  his  skill  perished,  as 
did  also  the  comparatively  rude  monochromes,  executed  be- 
fore 1350  in  the  ancient  hall  of  the  Grand  Council.  These 
were  replaced  by  colored  frescoes  in  tempera  by  Gentile  da 
Fabriano,  whom  the  state  invited  to  ornament  its  palace,  and 
treated  with  suitable  honors.  But  the  natural  dampness  of 
the  climate  proved  ruinous  to  such  mural  splendors,  and  we 
afterward  hear  of  a  third  attempt  at  decoration  by  the 
brothers  Bellini,  with  pictures  on  canvas  fitted  into  paneled 
frames.  These  were  proof  against  water,  though  not  against 
fire,  for  the  hall  itself  was  burned  in  1577. 

Yet  if  the  evidences  of  Gentile  da  Fabriano's  art  were 
fleeting,  his  influence  was  permanent.  His  early  pupil  Ja- 
copo  di  Piero,  or,  as  we  may  call  him,  Jacopo  Bellini,  born 
about  1400,  studied  his  style  with  admiring  devotion,  was  his 
constant  companion  during  his  stay  in  Venice,  painted  his 


PAINTING  IN  VENICE. 

109 

portrait,  and  finally  made  him  godfather  of  his  eldest  son. 
Jacopo  had  previously  been  familiar  only  with  the  Paduan 
ideal  of  art,  which  was  severe,  hard,  and  coldly  classical. 
The  brilliancy,  ease,  and  flexibility  of  Fabriano's  method 
could  not  fail  to  be  attractive  to  any  one  with  a  true  love  for 
color  and  an  inborn  genius,  and  we  consequently  find  that, 
when  Jacopo  established  a  workshop  at  Padua,  he  was  a  for- 
midable rival  to  Squarcione,  even  captivating  Andrea  Man- 
tegna,  who  married  Bellini's  daughter  Nicolosia,  and  greatly 
profited  by  the  examples  of  his  new  connections. 

Very  few  of  Jacopo  Bellini's  works  survive.  A  half- 
length,  full-faced  "  Virgin  and  Child  "  is  in  the  Venice  Acad- 
emy, while  a  "  Crucifixion "  is  found  in  the  archiepiscopal 
palace  at  Verona.  Far  more  interesting  than  these  is  his 
book  of  sketches,  now  owned  by  the  British  Museum.  It  has 
99  pages,  seventeen  by  thirteen  inches.  The  drawings  are  in 
pencil,  with  pen-and-ink  touches,  and  a  pale-green  tint  of 
water-color.  "  Still  and  animal  life,  Nature,  ancient  sculpture, 
buildings,  and  human  figures,  are  all  there.  The  stories  of 
Judith  and  Holofernes,  of  David  and  Goliath,  many  New  Tes- 
tament histories,  the  wonders  of  hagiology  and  of  mythology, 
al>  have  a  place.  In  contrast  with  these  are  studies  of  apes, 
eagles,  dogs,  cats,  village-scenes,  hawking-parties,  etc.,  etc." 

His  sons,  however,  both  of  whom  were  artists,  far  eclipsed 
their  father.  He  had  trained  them  as  enthusiastic  followers 
of  his  own  profession,  and  was  delighted  to  see  them  sur- 
passing himself.  Gentile  Bellini,  born  in  1421,  early  became 
eminent  as  a  portraitist,  and,  when  the  Council  of  Ten  decided 
to  replace  Gentile  da  Fabriano's  frescoes  in  the  Hall  of  State 
with  pictures  executed  in  oils,  he  was  given  charge  of  the 


I90  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

work.  This  brought  him  into  such  favor  that  when  the 
Sultan  of  Turkey  dispatched  a  request  to  the  Venetian  Gov- 
ernment that  one  of  their  best  painters  might  be  sent  to  him, 
Gentile  was  unanimously  selected.  Mohammed  II.,  quite  re- 
gardless of  the  curse  of  the  Prophet  against  every  image  of  a 
living  person,  not  only  employed  Gentile  to  paint  his  own 
portrait  and  that  of  a  sultana,  but  took  the  deepest  interest 
in  all  his  practice  of  art.  This  Turkish  visit  came  to  a  hasty 
termination  when,  upon  the  exhibition  of  a  picture  of  a  head 
of  St.  John  Baptist  in  a  charger,  the  sultan  found  fault  with 
the  appearance  of  the  severed  neck,  and,  perceiving  that  Gen- 
tile did  not  yield  to  his  criticisms,  immediately  decapitated  a 
slave  that  he  might  see  for  himself  the  proper  working  of  the 
muscles  under  such  circumstances.  The  artist  was  instantly 
convinced,  and  seized  the  first  opportunity  to  escape  such 
practical  instructions.  But  his  foreign  experiences  stored  his 
memory  with  many  effective  incidents  of  Turkish  life,  which 
he  used  in  his  future  compositions ;  as,  for  instance,  in  the 
example  preserved  in  the  Louvre  of  the  "  Reception  of  a  Ve- 
netian Embassador  at  Constantinople."  His  large  paintings 
in  the  Venice  Gallery  of  the  "  Procession  through  the  Piazza 
of  San  Marco,"  and  the  "  Recovery  of  a  Relic  fallen  into  the 
Grand  Canal,"  are  very  quaint  and  valuable.  His  last  pict- 
ure, the  "  Sermon  of  St.  Mark,"  was  left  unfinished  by  his 
death  in  1507.  It  was  completed  by  his  brother  Gian,  and  is 
now  in  the  Brera,  Milan. 

Giovanni  or  Gian  Bellini  (1422-1516)  is  the  true  leader 
of  art  in  Venice.  He  had  been  taught  as  a  youth  the  old 
manner  of  tempera-painting,  but  availed  himself,  as  soon  as 
possible,  of  the  new  oil  medium.  Indeed,  ancient  historians 


PAINTING  IN  VENICE. 

have  a  story  that  he  gained  admittance  in  disguise  to  the 
studio  of  Antonello  da  Messina  and  stole  his  Flemish  secrets; 
but  this  is  only  a  fiction,  and  a  very  unnecessary  one,  for 
Antonello  did  not  hesitate  to  impart  his  knowledge  to  those 
who  wished  to  learn.  The  use  of  oil-colors  was  particularly 
adapted  to  Gian's  tastes,  and  allowed  him  scope  for  his  love 
of  brilliant  hues,  strong  in  tone,  but  softly  blended  into 
beautiful  gradations  of  tint.  A  moment's  reflection  will  show 
us  how  naturally  Venetian  surroundings  led  up  to  such 
style  of  color.  The  location  and  climate  of  the  city  gave  its 
inhabitants  through  most  of  the  year  an  atmosphere  bathed 
in  sunshine,  half  veiled  at  sunrise  and  sunset  by  golden  or 
rosy  mists  which  magically  melted  into  the  deep-blue  sky  and 
sparkling  blue  water  that  reflected  every  thing  in  changeful 
and  transparent  lights  and  shadows.  Snowy  marble  palaces, 
gilded  domes  and  columns,  gleaming  mosaics,  and  richly- 
decorated  architecture,  all  contributed  to  the  splendid  pano- 
rama ever  before  the  eye  and  imagination  of  the  painter,  and 
ever  ready  to  be  reproduced  on  his  canvas.  The  great  diffi- 
culty was  to  acquire  such  skill  in  handling  the  brush  as  to  be 
able  to  copy  faithfully  from  Nature's  model.  This  Giovanni 
Bellini  was  the  first  to  accomplish. 

A  "  Transfiguration,"  at  Naples,  is  considered  to  be  his 
earliest  very  successful  effort  in  oils,  but  specimens  almost 
equally  excellent  are  found  in  the  Venetian  Gallery  and 
churches.  His  subjects  were  usually  sacred,  whereas  those 
of  his  brother  Gentile  had  been  anecdotal  or  historical  in 
character.  Gian's  Madonna-faces  are  so  nearly  alike  that  it 
is  plainly  evident  a  type  of  the  Virgin  was  fixed  in  his  ima- 
gination, and  never  varied.  Serious,  pure,  and  gentle,  she 


192 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


sits  upon  her  throne,  and  looks  placidly  down  upon  her  wor- 
shipers. Architectural  backgrounds  and  admirable  land- 
scapes form  the  vistas  of  his  pictures,  in  which  we  also  see 
the  pleasing  musical  angels  which  were  a  favorite  feature  of 
the  Venetian  school.  He  was  engaged,  like  Gentile,  on  the 
grand  paintings  of  the  Council-Chamber,  recording  the  wars 
of  the  Venetians  with  the  Emperor  Barbarossa,  and  the  Doge 
Ziani  receiving  from  the  pope  the  ring  with  which  he  was  to 
wed  the  Adriatic.  His  best  work  was  done  after  the  age  of 
sixty,  and  is  most  fitly  represented  in  Venice  by  the  large 
altar-piece  of  "  Christ  at  Emmaus,"  the  property  of  the  church 
of  San  Salvatore,  but  now  temporarily  consigned  to  the  Gal- 
lery of  Fine  Arts. 

The  influence  of  Gian  Bellini  upon  the  art  of  his  times 
was  very  powerful,  not  only  in  Venice,  but  throughout  Italy 
and  Germany.  He  was  extremely  popular  with  his  fellow- 
citizens,  painting  the  portraits  of  doges  and  nobles,  living  in 
affluence,  and  receiving  flattering  attentions  at  home  and 
from  abroad.  Albrecht  Diirer  has  left  an  account  of  a  visit 
to  his  studio,  near  the  close  of  Bellini's  long  and  prosperous 
life,  which  ended  on  the  2pth  of  November,  1516.  He  is 
buried  beside  his  brother,  in  the  church  of  San  Giovanni  e 
Paolo. 

Many  of  his  so-called  compositions  should  really  be  at- 
tributed to  his  pupils,  especially  those  in  distant  collections. 
Venice,  of  course,  contains  the  greatest  number  of  his  pict- 
ures. An  early  and  not  attractive  "  Pieta  "  is  in  the  Brera, 
Milan.  The  same  subject,  very  brown  in  tone,  is  repeated  in 
the  Vatican.  Several  oil-paintings  are  ascribed  to  him  at 
Berlin.  A  remarkably  good  portrait  of  the  old  Doge  Lore- 


PAINTING  IN  VENICE. 

y*j 

dano,  the  founder  of  the  state  Inquisition,  is  in  the  London 
Gallery.  His  last  pictures  were  a  "  Madonna,"  at  Padua,  and 
the  "Venus,"  dated  1515,  of  the  Belvedere  Gallery,  Vienna. 
The  painting  in  the  Louvre  of  two  young  men  in  one  frame, 
one  with  fair  complexion  and  red  hair,  the  other  dark-haired, 
catalogued  as  "  Gentile  and  Gian  Bellini,"  is  now  conceded 
not  to  be  genuine,  but  is  probably  from  the  hand  of  an 
artist  of  Bergamo.  Gian's  own  portrait  at  Munich,  display- 
ing him  as  a  man  near  middle  age,  in  a  black  cap  and 
dark  vest,  is  thought  to  have  been  executed  by  his  brother 
Gentile. 

Before  quitting  this  early  period  we  must  notice  Carlo 
Crivelli,  born  between  1430  and  1440,  and  surviving  till  the 
end  of  the  century.  He  was  a  contemporary  of  the  Bellini, 
but  far  behind  them  in  enterprise  and  talent,  though  sharing 
somewhat  of  Gian's  feeling  for  color.  While  every  one  else 
was  experimenting  in  oils,  he  always  adhered  to  tempera- 
painting  on  wood.  Yet  his  stiff  and  ugly  compositions  were 
not  without  vigor  and  expression,  and  gained  him  sufficient 
reputation  to  deserve  the  honor  of  knighthood  from  Prince 
Ferdinand  of  Capua.  His  style  appears  to  have  been  modeled 
in  some  degree  upon  that  of  Andrea  Mantegna.  Strange  to 
say,  he  may  now  be  studied  to  best  advantage  in  the  London 
Gallery,  where  his  finest  altar-pieces  are  collected.  A  "  Vir- 
gin and  Child,"  by  his  obscure  relative,  Vittorio  Crivelli,  is  in 
the  Kensington  Museum. 

Of  much-  more  decided  genius  were  Vittore  Carpaccio 
(about  1455-1525),  and  Cima  da  Conegliano  (about  1460- 
1518),  followers,  but  not  pupils,  of  the  Bellini.  The  exact 
date  of  their  birth  and  death  has  not  been  ascertained,  but  is 


I94  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

approximately  given  frbm  French  authorities.  Carpaccio  is 
little  known  out  of  Venice,  but  our  interest  in  him  there  is 
strongly  excited  by  his  noble  and  charmingly  colored  "  Pre- 
sentation of  the  Infant  Saviour,"  hanging  in  the  Academy — 
with  the  aged  Simeon  standing  in  the  midst  of  superb  archi- 
tecture, and  ready  to  sing  his  "  Nunc  Dimittis  "  in  a  cardinal's 
gorgeous  mantle,  held  up  by  two  servants  behind  him,  while 
a  couple  of  musical  angels  below  prepare  to  play  the  accom- 
paniment ;  also  by  his  large  and  curious  series  of  pictures 
on  the  story  of  St.  Ursula,  so  oddly  imaginative,  yet  so 
graphic  and  well-arranged. 

Giam  Battista  Cima,  surnamed  da  Conegliano  from  his 
native  town,  has  somewhat  wider  celebrity.  His  style  was 
rather  simple  than  grand ;  but  he  is  most  correct,  precise,  and 
symmetrical  in  form,  lustrous  in  tint,  and  enamel-like  in 
finish.  Kugler  says  that  his  coloring  sometimes  "glistens 
like  jewels."  Fine  Madonnas  by  him  are  preserved  in  the 
Venice  churches  and  Academy;  but  his  most  pleasing  com- 
position is  the  majestic  standing  figure  of  the  Saviour,  at 
Dresden,  so  generally  but  wrongfully  attributed  to  Gian  Bel- 
lini. Madonnas  are  also  to  be  found  at  London,  in  the 
Louvre,  and  in  other  European  collections.  Cima's  pictures 
may  occasionally  be  identified  by  a  little  rabbit  painted  in 
the  corner  as  his  signature.  As  a  rabbit  is  coneglio  in  Italian, 
this  was  intended  as  a  play  upon  his  name. 

But  as  yet  we  have  only  lingered  on  the  threshold  of  Ve- 
netian art-history.  The  close  of  the  fifteenth  century  brings 
us  to  Giorgione  and  Titian,  the  illustrious  pupils  of  Gian 
Bellini,  and  the  great  world-masters  of  color. 

Giorgio  Barbarelli,  born  at  Castelfranco,  in  1477,  the  same 


INCREDULITY  OF  ST.  THOMAS  (Cima). 


p.  194. 


PAINTING  IN  VENICE. 

y  o 

year  as  Titian,  received  his  title  of  Gwrgione,  which  means 
George  the  Great,  from  his  tall,  commanding  figure,  inherited 
from  a  patrician  father.  His  mother,  however,  having  been 
only  a  poor  country-girl,  the  child  was  never  acknowledged, 
but  was  left  to  make  his  own  way  in  the  world.  This  he  did 
quite  effectually,  as  he  was  "of  distinguished  presence,  spir- 
ited character,  kindly,  and  of  good  manners,  adored  by 
women,  an  admirable  musician,  a  welcome  guest  in  noble 
houses,"  and,  above  all,  a  most  powerful  and  original  painter. 
Yet  an  undercurrent  of  melancholy  seemed  natural  to  his 
temperament,  and  is  often  very  subtly  visible  in  his  romantic 
pictures. 

While  still  a  boy,  he  was  placed  in  the  Bellini  studio,  but 
made  such  progress  that  the  scholar  eventually  excelled  the 
master,  and  Gian  Bellini  was  glad  to  catch  from  his  pupil  a 
more  glowing  intensity  of  coloring,  and  greater  harmony  and 
depth  of  tone.  After  quitting  his  studies,  one  of  his  first 
independent  tasks  was  to  fresco,  with  Titian,  the  outside  of  a 
public  hall  of  exchange,  which  he  adorned  so  beautifully  that 
he  was  soon  occupied  with  many  similar  commissions  for 
other  Venetian  buildings  and  palaces.  The  dampness  of  the 
sea  has  long  since  destroyed  all  such  splendors.  Doubtless 
they  were  surpassed  by  the  rich  oil-paintings  still  left  us, 
which  many  regard  as  superior  even  to  Titian's  in  their  deep 
and  fiery  color,  their  profound  sentiment,  their  luminous 
glow  and  mysterious  shadow,  their  breadth  of  outline,  and 
pastoral  poetry.  The  rivalry  with  Titian  was  only  too  brief, 
being  terminated  by  Giorgione's  early  death,  at  the  age  of 
thirty-four.  He  has  been  made  the  hero  of  a  love-story,  in 
which  he  is  reported  to  have  perished  of  grief  at  the  loss  of 


196 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


his  mistress  through  an  unfaithful  friend;  but  facts  appear 
to  prove  that  he  died  of  the  plague  in  1511. 

Much  discussion  has  arisen  in  regard  to  the  genuine- 
ness of  many  of  Giorgione's  pictures.  Even  the  few  existing 
at  Venice  have  been  doubted.  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  ques- 
tion the  authenticity  of  the  "  Tempest,"  in  the  Academy,  and 
of  others  in  the  Manfrini  Palace,  including  the  celebrated 
"Horoscope,"  or  "Astrologer."  One  of  his  finest  and  most 
characteristic  works  is  the  "Chaldean  Sages,"  at  Vienna, 
probably  referring  to  the  journey  of  the  Magi,  and  represent- 
ing three  men  in  a  wild,  extended  landscape.  "  The  first, 
very  aged,  in  an  Oriental  costume,  with  long  gray  beard, 
stands  holding  in  his  hand  an  astronomical  table ;  the  next, 
a  man  in  the  prime  of  life,  seems  listening  to  him ;  the  third, 
a  youth,  seated  and  looking  upward,  holds  a  compass."  Far 
on  the  horizon  the  mystic  star  is  just  rising.  Another  master- 
piece, at  Dresden,  is  the  "  Meeting  of  Jacob  and  Rachel," 
under  the  most  pastoral  circumstances.  The  surroundings 
of  Jacob  certainly  mark  him  as  a  shepherd,  but  Rachel  is 
more  Venetian  than  Biblical.  The  half-length  "  Concerts  " 
of  the  Pitti  and  the  Louvre  indicate  his  musical  tendencies. 
That  of  the  Pitti  is  decidedly  the  best ;  composed  of  a  monk 
playing  the  piano,  and  two  by-standers,  so  graphically  and 
truthfully  rendered  that  a  copy  of  it  in  the  Doria  Palace, 
Rome,  was  designated  as  the  portraits  of  Melanchthon,  Lu- 
ther, and  Catharine  von  Bora.  The  Louvre  "  Concert "  is 
chiefly  remarkable  for  its  sumptuous  and  lovely  landscape. 
The  Pitti  Gallery  has  also  a  "  Nymph  chased  by  a  Satyr," 
over  which  Taine  grows  eloquent.  A  "  Knight  of  Malta  " 
is  in  the  Uffizi,  and  a  "Knight  in  Armor"  at  Vienna.  A 


PAINTING  IN  VENICE. 

"Madonna,"  and  a  fine  portrait  of  himself,  noble,  handsome, 
and  energetic,  exist  at  Munich;  while  several  compositions 
are  ascribed  to  him  at  Madrid,  particularly  a  "  Madonna  with 
Saints,"  and  a  half-length  "  Family  Portrait."  An  early  altar- 
piece  is  shown  at  Castelfranco,  and  a  much-ruined  "  Burial 
-  of  Christ"  at  Treviso,  depicting  the  body  of  our  Saviour 
poetically  entombed  by  youthful  angels. 

The  study  of  color,  thus  happily  introduced  at  Venice, 
was  carried  on  to  perfection  by  Tiziano  Vecellio,  who,  dur- 
ing his  long  life  of  ninety-nine  years,  has  been  described 
as  "  the  most  fortunate  and  healthy  of  his  species ;  Heaven 
having  awarded  to  him  nothing  but  favors  and  felicities." 
Born  in  1477,  at  Cadore,  in  the  Friulian  Alps,  he  began 
to  paint  almost  as  soon  as  he  began  to  breathe ;  and 
there  is  a  pretty  little  legend  to  the  effect  that  he  used  no 
prosaic  chalk  or  charcoal,  but  that  the  juices  of  flowers 
formed  his  childish  colors.  To  the  beautiful  horizon  of  hills 
which  encircled  his  birthplace  we  can  trace  back  his  un- 
wearied partiality  for  fine,  bold  landscape,  deep-blue  skies, 
and  mountain  scenery,  so  often  visible  in  the  background  of 
his  pictures. 

An  uncle  in  the  not  distant  city  of  Venice  appears  to  have 
first  taken  charge  of  his  education,  and  to  have  entered  him 
when  very  young  as  a  pupil  in  the  studio  of  Gian  Bellini, 
where  he  was  more  impressed  with  the  genius  of  his  fellow- 
student  Giorgione  than  with  that  of  his  master.  Giorgione's 
style  was  eminently  attractive  to  a  nature  like  Titian's; 
though  we  see  in  their  paintings  the  character  of  the  two  men 
in  contrast :  Giorgione's  more  intense,  Titian's  broader  and 
more  ample.  Jealousy  finally  terminated  their  friendship; 


198 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


yet  they  were  employed  together  on  the  exterior  frescoes  of 
the  Hall  of  Exchange  at  Venice — where,  however,  Titian's 
work  was  most  admired. 

But  it  was  easel-painting  and  not  fresco  which  best  dis- 
played Titian's  .talents.  The  earliest  pictures  in  oil  ascribed 
to  him  by  modern  critics  are  a  "Visitation  of  St.  Elizabeth,"  a 
small  "Adoration  of  the  Kings,"  and  a  portrait  of  one  of  the 
Barberigo  family,  all  executed  in  1512,  the  year  in  which  he 
married.  We  know  nothing  of  his  wife,  except  that  she  was 
named  Lucia,  or  Cecilia,  and  died  in  1530. 

In  1514  he  spent  some  time  at  the  court  of  Ferrara,  made 
famous  to  us  by  its  associations  with  Tasso  and  his  Leonora. 
There  he  met  Ariosto,  and  other  men  of  brilliancy  and  learn- 
ing ;  and  there  he  painted  for  Duke  Alphonso  the  picture  of 
"Christ  and  the  Tribute-Money"  (Cristo  della  Monetd),  now 
to  be  found  at  Dresden.  The  flesh-tints  of  the  face  of  our 
Saviour,  its  finely-rendered  hair  and  beard,  and  the  calm, 
piercing  majesty  of  its  expression,  as  he  turns  toward  the 
crafty  Pharisee,  are  the  points  for  which  it  has  been  most 
praised.  But  the  duke,  who  was  a  patron  of  pleasure,  as  well 
as  of  the  arts,  found  mythological  and  sensuous  subjects  more 
to  his  taste,  and  ordered  from  the  painter  two  Bacchanalian 
scenes — one  the  "Bacchus  and  Ariadne,"  at  present  in  the 
London  Gallery ;  the  other  the  "  Arrival  of  Bacchus  in  the 
Isle  of  Naxos,"  since  removed  to  Madrid,  as  is  also  a  more 
celebrated  companion-piece,  the  "Sacrifice  to  the  Goddess 
of  Fertility,"  where  fair  young  girls  offer  fruit  and  flowers 
before  the  statue  of  Venus,  and  some  sixty  figures  of  children 
and  Cupids  sport  in  most  graceful  attitudes  through  the 
charming  landscape.  Portraits  of  Duke  Alphonso's  wives, 


PAINTING  IN  VENICE.  ,99 

and  of  other  court  beauties,  who  may  have  been  models  for 
the  Venuses  in  which  the  artist  so  delighted,  likewise  belong 
to  this  epoch.  It  must  be  confessed  that  Titian  painted  this 
class  of  subjects  con  amore,  and  was  much  more  familiar  with 
the  material  than  with  the  sacred  or  spiritual.  Yet  there  is  a 
grand,  calm  beauty  about  his  human  forms,  a  splendor  of  life 
and  luxury,  which,  with  all  his  power  of  color,  does  not  de- 
generate into  Rubens's  coarseness.  His  magnificent  women 
appear  as  far  above  ordinary  life  as  they  are  below  heavenly 
sainthood;  yet  they  seem  to  grow  as  naturally  under  his 
brush  as  glowing  flowers  in  tropical  sunshine.  We  perceive 
this  particularly  in  his  portraits  —  those,  for  instance,  of 
Catharine  Cornaro,  Queen  of  Cyprus ;  of  the  "  Bella,"  at  the 
Sciarra  Palace,  Rome,  and  the  Pitti,  Florence;  of  the 
"  Flora,"  at  the  Uffizi;  and  the  "  Maitresse  de  Titien,"  at  the 
Louvre. 

In  1516  we  again  find  Titian  at  Venice,  engaged  upon  his 
great  "  Assumption  of  the  Virgin,"  in  which  he  shows  him- 
self in  the  full  maturity  of  talent,  complete  master  of  every 
secret  of  color.  TJie  "  Presentation  of  the  Youthful  Virgin 
in  the  Temple,"  a  much  larger  piece  in  the  same  Venetian 
gallery,  probably  dates  a  little  earlier,  as  does  also  the  "  Vierge 
au  Lapin,"  or,  "Madonna  of  the  Rabbit,"  from  the  white 
rabbit  in  the  foreground,  now  hanging  in  the  Louvre.  Public 
work  at  this  time  demanded  much  of  his  attention,  as  he  was 
appointed  to  continue  or  superintend  the  paintings  in  the 
ducal  hall  of  the  Grand  Council.  All  these  splendid  efforts 
perished  by  fire,  which  has  been  peculiarly  fatal  to  Titian's 
labors,  as  it  also  destroyed,  about  ten  years  ago,  his  superb 
altar-piece  of  the  "  Death  of  St.  Peter  Martyr,"  belonging  to 
14 


200  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

the  church  of  the  Frari.  This  was  one  of  Titian's  finest 
compositions.  It  is  still  well  known  through  engravings. 
The  saint  represented  was  not  the  Apostle  Peter,  but  a  Do- 
minican monk,  Peter  of  Verona,  who,  returning  from  a  coun- 
cil of  the  Church,  was  slain  by  an  assassin  in  a  lonely  wood. 
The  painter  depicted  the  moment  when  the  murderer  seized 
his  victim,  whose  companion  fled  in  terror  from  the  spot. 
The  surrounding  landscape,  with  its  tall,  mysterious  trees,  its 
fading  light,  the  deep-purple  hills  on  its  horizon-line,  and  the 
angels  waiting  in  the  open  heavens  to  receive  the  martyr's 
soul,  formed  a  scene  which  has  been  extolled  as  one  of  the 
sublimest  in  art.  The  celebrated  "  Entombment,"  whose 
original  is  in  the  Manfrini  Palace,  Venice,  but  which  is  re- 
peated by  Titian's  own  hand,  in  the  Louvre,  is  in  the  same 
forcible  style,  but  more  conventional,  and  therefore  less  im- 
pressive. 

Among  the  political  events  of  this  exciting  century  was 
the  meeting  of  the  powerful  Charles  V.  and  Pope  Clement 
VII.  at  Bologna,  in  the  year  1530.  Thither  Titian  was  invited 
by  the  pope's  relative,  Cardinal  de  Medici,  and  both  emperor 
and  pontiff  sat  to  him  for  their  portraits.  These  portraits 
still  remain  to  us :  that  of  the  emperor  on  horseback,  in  the 
Gallery  of  Madrid ;  that  of  Clement,  in  the  Bridgewater  col- 
lection, London ;  while  the  two  likenesses  of  Cardinal  de  Me- 
dici, in  the  Pitti  Gallery,  Florence,  and  in  the  Louvre,  were 
doubtless  executed  on  this  same  occasion.  The  emperor  was 
delighted  with  the  artist,  who  ever  after  enjoyed  his  most 
lavish  patronage,  and  a  very  irregularly-paid  pension.  But  it 
did  not  need  such  imperial  favor  to  testify  to  the  fact  that 
Titian  was  the  greatest  portrait-painter  the  world  has  ever 


PAINTING  IN  VENICE 

2OI 

produced.  Every  distinguished  man  of  the  age  was  eager  to 
secure  a  likeness  from  his  brush.  Such  as  the  King  of  Spain 
and  Emperor  of  Germany,  the  popes,  doges,  and  cardinals, 
are  easily  recognizable ;  but  many  others  are  now  without  a 
name,  and  have  so  changed  owners  that  we  can  no  longer  tell 
whom  they  were  meant  to  delineate  ;  yet  their  dignified  and 
eloquent  faces,  instinct  with  physical  and  intellectual  life,  seem 
as  real  and  striking  as  though  they  were  men  of  yesterday. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  his  fresh,  youthful,  and  splendidly- 
developed  females,  so  warmly  colored,  and  full  of  all  the  joy 
of  existence,  yet  so  vigorous,  majestic,  and  serenely  calm. 

Taine  has  given  us,  in  his  "  Italy,"  a  vivid  description  of 
Venetian  life  in  the  sixteenth  century.  We  can  thus  imagine 
Titian,  in  the  midst  of  wealth  and  splendor,  with  his  friends, 
the  magnificent  and  licentious  Aretino  and  the  architect 
Sansovino,  "  eating  and  drinking  daintily  and  heartily,  ap- 
preciative of  music,  of  elegant  luxury,  and  the  society  of 
pleasure-seeking  women.  .  .  .  Around  him  beauty,  taste,  edu- 
cation, the  talents  of  others,  reflect  back  on  him,  as  from 
a  mirror,  the  brightness  of  his  own  genius.  His  brother,  his 
son  Orazio,  his  two  cousins  Cesare  and  Fabrizio,  are  all  ex- 
cellent painters.  His  daughter  Lavinia,  dressed  as  Flora, 
with  a  basket  of  fruit  on  her  head,  furnishes  him  with  a  model 
in  the  freshness  of  her  carnation,  and  in  the  amplitude  of 
her  admirable  form.  Daily  he  designs  something  in  chalk  or 
charcoal.  A  supper  with  Sansovino,  or  Aretino,  makes  the 
day  complete." 

This  luxurious  existence  continued  with  little  variation 
for  more  than  half  a  century ;  for  there  is  no  reliable  evi- 
dence that  Titian  ever  went  to  Spain;  and  his  occasional 


202 


SCHOOLS  AND  AIASTERS  OF  PAINTING, 


journeys  to  Ferrara  or  Urbino,  where  he  painted  the  Venus 
in  the  tribune  of  the  Uffizi,  were  not  long  enough  to  break  in 
seriously  upon  his  Venetian  pleasures;  while  his  sojourn  with 
the  Emperor  Charles,  at  Augsburg,  was  but  a  repetition,  on  a 
grander  scale,  of  his  domestic  gayeties.  Still  he  never  aban- 
doned himself  to  profligacy  or  idleness.  Painting  was  the 
business  of  his  life,  and  he  pursued  it  with  diligence ;  grow- 
ing in  excellence  as  he  grew  in  age. 

In  the  autumn  of  1545,  Pope  Paul  III.  summoned  Titian 
to  Rome,  to  paint  his  portrait.  The  pope  was  terribly  ugly ; 
with  pinched-up  features,  keen,  snake-like  eyes,  and  fingers 
like  bird-claws ;  and  assuredly  Titian's  hand  was  too  faithful 
for  flattery — yet  the  pontiff  was  much  pleased  with  the  pict- 
ure, which  represented  him  between  his  two  nephews,  the 
Duke  Ottavio  and  Cardinal  Farnese.  It  is  now  at  Naples. 
Other  paintings  were  completed  at  Rome  :  a  "  Venus  and 
Adonis,"  repeated  in  the  National  Gallery,  London ;  the 
"  Sacred  and  Profane  Love,"  of  the  Borghese  ;  and  a 
"  Danae  in  the  Golden  Shower,"  which  Michael  Angelo  was 
compelled  to  admire,  though  he  qualified  his  praise  by  re- 
marking that  Titian  did  not  know  how  to  draw.  In  truth, 
the  Roman  artists  were  jealous  of  the  great  Venetian,  re- 
ceived him  very  coldly,  and  were  glad  when  he  returned 
to  more  appreciative  neighbors.  He  evidently  did  not 
waste  his  best  work  upon  lukewarm  patrons.  'The  fine 
"  St.  Sebastian,"  now  in  the  Vatican,  was  not  done  to  the 
order  of  the  pope,  but  came  from  the  church  of  the  Frari, 
Venice. 

A  majority  of  the  masterpieces  of  Titian's  later  years  were 
executed  for  Charles  V.  and  his  son  Philip,  who  kept  them 


ST.  SEBASTIAN  (Titian). 


PAINTING  IN  VENICE,  2O3 

carefully  treasured  at  Madrid ;  though  fire  has  attacked  some 
chefs-d'oeuvre  in  Spain  as  well  as  in  Venice.  Among  the  forty- 
two  which  still  hang  in  the  Madrid  Gallery  we  may  count  a 
number  of  portraits,  principally  of  the  art-loving  emperor,  his 
successors,  and  the  royal  families.  The  first  portrait  of  Charles 
on  horseback  has  been  previously  mentioned;  but  another, 
more  mature  in  age,  in  a  standing  position,  with  one  hand 
resting  on  the  head  of  a  favorite  dog,  is  an  even  finer  and 

f 

more  stately  likeness.  Philip  II.,  who  lives  to  posterity 
through  Titian's  faces  and  Motley's  history,  stands  before  us 
with  pale,  melancholy,  and  effeminate  features ;  and  after  we 
are  wearied  of  contemplating  Spanish  celebrities  we  may 
pause  to  look  at  Titian's  own  likeness  of  himself  in  dignified 
old  age.  Among  the  mythological  representations  for  which, 
in  spite  of  the  censures  of  the  Inquisition,  the  Castilian 
monarchs  had  an  unconcealed  fondness,  we  shall  see  the 
ubiquitous  "  Venus ;  "  joyous  and  highly-colored  "  Baccha- 
nalian Scenes  ;  "  "  Diana  and  Calisto ;  "  "  Diana  surprised 
by  Acteeon  ;  "  the  "  Goddess  of  Fertility  ;  "  "  Venus  and 
Adonis;"  and  "Prometheus."  These  are  counterbalanced 
by  some  sacred  pieces,  such  as  a  "  Madonna,"  "  Ecce  Homo," 
"Entombment,"  "St.  Margaret,"  "Daughter  of  Herodias, 
"Penitent  Magdalen,"  and  "Original  Sin,"  in  which  the 
serpent,  coiled  round  the  tree  of  life,  watches  the  action 
of  Eve  who  presents  the  fruit  to  Adam.  The  most  remark- 
able, however,  of  these  subjects  is  "  The  Apotheosis  of  the 
Imperial  family,"  where  Charles  V.,  Philip  II.,  and  their 
wives,  are  presented  in  heaven  to  the  Trinity.  God  the 
Father,  Christ,  and  the  Virgin,  all  draped  in  long  blue  man- 
tles and  attended  by  the  dove  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  graciously 


204  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

welcome  the  royal  comers,  who  are  admitted  by  angels  to  the 
celestial  court.  Such  a  picture  appeared  neither  incongruous 
nor  irreverent  to  the  Spanish  mind!  The  list  of  Madrid 
paintings  here  briefly  indicated  must  close  with  the  "  Battle 
of  Lepanto,"  a  large  historical  composition  finished  by  Titian 
at  the  age  of  ninety-four.  This  commemorates  the  Spanish 
victory  at  Lepanto,  yet  does  not  give  the  combat  itself,  but 
rather  its  results  in  allegory ;  with  a  chained  Turk  and  Orien- 
tal trophies  on  one  side,  and  King  Philip  holding  up  his  in- 
fant son  in  thanksgiving  on  the  other,  while  the  Goddess  of 
Fame  brings  a  crown  and  palm-branch. 

Another  marvelous  production  of  Titian's  declining  years 
was  the  "  Martyrdom  of  St.  Lawrence,"  much  injured  by 
time,  in  the  church  of  the  Jesuits,  Venice.  This  colossal 
altar-piece,  a  work  of  his  eighty-first  year,  thought  by  Kugler 
to  excel  "  St.  Peter  Martyr,"  displays  some  wonderful  effects 
of  color,  being  lighted  by  the  mingled  glow  of  the  pans  of 
burning  pitch  beneath  the  gridiron,  the  fire  of  a  tripod  blazing 
before  a  heathen  statue,  and  the  heavenly  radiance  of  a  de- 
scending angel  to  whom  the  martyr  is  stretching  out  his  hands. 
Another  Venetian  altar-piece  of  earlier  date,  in  the  church  of 
the  Frari,  must  not  be  left  unnoticed.  It  is  styled  the  "  Ma- 
donna of  the  Pesaro  Family,"  and  may  be  taken  as  a  repre- 
sentative of  a  class  of  subjects  which  Titian,  like  other  Ve- 
netians, frequently  attempted,  and  examples  of  which  will  be 
found  in  many  galleries,  showing  an  entire  family  presented 
to  the  Virgin  by  some  patron  saint  or  saints. 

But  time,  which  ends  all  things,  brought  at  last  the  clos- 
ing days  of  this  eminent  and  fortunate  man.  One  of  the 
last  records  of  his  brilliant  career  was  the  visk  of  Henry  III. 


PAINTING  IN  VENICE.  2O5 

to  his  house,  while  passing  through  Venice  on  his  way  from 
Poland.  He  came  with  his  lords  and  princes  to  pay  his  re- 
spects to  the  painter.  "  The  aged  artist  received  him  with 
dignity,  and  with  those  easy  and  noble  manners  which  were 
peculiar  to  him,  and  talked  to  him  a  long  time  about  the 
vicissitudes  of  his  own  life.  In  the  mean  while,  he  caused  his 
domestics  to  give  a  splendid  entertainment  to  the  courtiers 
of  his  majesty,  and  the  train  who  accompanied  him ;  so  that 
they  seemed  to  be  in  the  palace  of  a  great  prince  instead  of 
in  the  house  of  an  artist.  Nor  was  the  generosity  of  Titian 
confined  to  this ;  for,  being  asked  by  the  king  the  price  of 
some  pictures  that  pleased  him,  he  entreated  him  to  accept 
of  them  as  a  gift." 

Titian's  final  labors  were  devoted  to  altar-pieces  intended 
for  Venetian  churches  and  monuments.  His  vigor  and  skill, 
even  at  that  advanced  period,  were  most  extraordinary ;  but 
his  coloring  grew  heavy  and  somewhat  gloomy,  as  may  be 
seen  by  his  last  composition,  an  "  Entombment,"  now  in  the 
Gallery  of  Venice,  finished  by  Palma  after  the  master's  death. 

He  had  survived  his  friends  Aretino  and  Sansovino ;  had 
outlived  his  beautiful  daughter  Lavinia,  who  had  married  and 
left  behind  her  six  children ;  and  was  still  in  Venice,  with  his 
artist-son  Orazio,  when  the  plague  of  1576  began  its  ravages. 
Both  father  and  son  were  taken  ill  and  died.  Old  historians 
tell  us  that  he  was  robbed  upon  his  death-bed  by  a  band  of 
ruffians,  who  broke  into  his  house  and  carried  off  his  jewels 
and  pictures  before. his  eyes.  His  only  remaining  child,  a 
worthless  son  Pomponio,  who  had  entered  the  priesthood  and 
lived  in  profligacy,  came  post-haste  from  Milan  to  Venice, 
sold  the  rest  of  his  property,  and  soon  squandered  all  his 


206  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

inheritance.  Titian's  body  was  interred  in  the  church  of  the 
Frari — the  Senate,  in  consideration  of  his  renown,  having  de- 
parted from  the  usual  rule  of  refusing  honorable  burial  to 
the  victims  of  the  plague — but  his  grave  remained  unmarked 
for  many  years.  A  splendid  monument  to  his  memory  has 
been  now  erected  in  the  church  of  the  Frari,  opposite  the 
tomb  of  Canova. 

His  pictures  have  within  the  last  three  hundred  years 
been  widely  distributed  over  Europe.  Scarcely  more  than 
thirty  are  left  in  Venice.  Most  of  the  remainder  are  in 
Spain  and  Italy.  Many  have  been  just  specified,  especially 
those  in  the  Venetian  churches  and  galleries,  the  great  num- 
ber at  Madrid,  and  the  few  at  Rome.  In  the  Uffizi,  Flor- 
ence, we  see  his  two  famous  figures  of  "  Venus ;  "  a  "  Flora," 
very  lightly  draped,  holding  flowers  in  her  hand ;  a  "  Holy 
Family,"  and  "  Madonnas ;  "  and  a  few  portraits,  especially 
that  of  Catharine  Cornaro,  and  his  own  likeness  in  the  Saloon 
of  the  Painters.  The  Pitti  Palace  is  rich  in  oortraits,  includ- 
ing those  of  Aretino,  Cardinal  de  Medici,  and  a  bright  young 
girl  with  auburn  tresses  and  robes  of  blue  and  violet  embroid- 
ered with  gold,  called  Titian's  "Bella."  The  more  generally 
known  "  Bella  "  is,  however,  in  the  Sciarra  Palace,  Rome ;  but 
is  now  supposed  by  some  critics  to  have  been  painted  by 
Palma  Vecchio  instead  of  Titian.  The  Pitti  also  possesses 
one  of  his  many  "  Magdalenes,"  a  most  lovely  but  not  very 
penitent  head,  with  tearful  eyes  raised  to  heaven,  and  mag- 
nificent hair  veiling  her  neck  and  bosom.  This  was  one  of 
his  favorite  conceptions ;  repeated  at  Madrid,  St.  Peters- 
burg, and  elsewhere.  The  St.  Petersburg  "  Magdalene  "  is 
quite  as  beautiful  as,  and  less  bold  than,  the  Florentine.  A 


PAINTING  IN  VENICE.  2O- 

"  Danae  "  and  some  portraits  are  at  Naples ;  a  few  portraits 
and  sacred  pieces  at  Munich  ;  and  a  large  collection,  not  all 
genuine,  at  Vienna ;  though  we  there  find  an  "  Entombment," 
"  Woman  taken  in  Adultery,"  and  repetitions  of  other  sub- 
jects previously  painted.  Dresden  has  his  youthful  "  Christ 
and  the  Tribute-Money  ;  "  some  female  portraits,  particularly 
the  Queen  of  Cyprus  as  a  widow,  and  his  daughter  Lavinia, 
grown  fat  and  middle-aged ;  a  Venetian  family  presented  to 
the  Virgin ;  and  the  most  beautiful  of  all  his  Venuses,  a  du- 
plicate of  one  at  Cambridge,  England,  representing  a  reclin- 
ing female,  thought  to  be  the  Princess  Eboli,  crowned  by 
Cupid,  and  listening  to  a  lover  playing  on  a  lute,  to  whom  are 
ascribed  the  features  of  Philip  of  Spain. 

In  the  Berlin  Museum  are  Titian's  own  portrait,  and  the 
celebrated  painting  known,  par  excellence,  as  "  Titian's 
Daughter."  She  stands,  in  superb  womanhood,  with  her 
face  turned  toward  the  gazer,  holding  above  her  head  a  plate 
of  fruit.  Titian,  who  loved  to  represent  his  daughter,  has 
immortalized  her  in  another  picture,  owned  by  Lord  de 
Grey,  where  she  bears  a  jewel-box  instead  of  the  fruit,  and 
also  in  the  "  Daughter  of  Herodias  "  at  Madrid,  with  the 
head  of  St.  John  Baptist. 

In  the  Louvre  are  four  "  Holy  Families,"  among  which  only 
the  "  Vierge  au  Lapin  "  is  certainly  genuine.  The  "  Entomb- 
ment," the  "  Christ  crowned  with  Thorns,"  and  the  "  Supper 
at  Emmaus,"  are  other  fine  sacred  subjects.  Several  excellent 
portraits ;  a  "  Jupiter  and  Antiope,"  called  the  "  Venus  del 
Pardo ;  "  and  the  figure  of  a  woman  combing  out  her  hair  be- 
fore a  mirror  which  a  man  is  holding,  sometimes  catalogued 
as  "  Titian's  Mistress,"  complete  the  list.  The  National 


208  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

Gallery,  England,  possesses  an  admirable  head  of  "  Ariosto," 
"Venus  and  Adonis,"  and  "Bacchus  and  Ariadne."  Some 
valuable  portraits  are  at  Hampton  Court  and  Windsor  Castle; 
while  the  "  Three  Ages  of  Man  "  is  to  be  found  in  the 
Bridgewater  Gallery,  London,  as  well  as  in  the  Manfrini  Pal- 
ace, Venice. 

Jacopo  Palma,  or  Palma  Vecchio  (1480-1528),  was  the 
friend  and  imitator,  but  scarcely  the  pupil,  of  Titian,  as  he 
was  only  three  years  his  junior.  He  has  the  same  soft,  rich 
coloring,  and  amplitude  and  beauty  of  female  forms.  Indeed, 
his  works  are  often  mistaken  for  Titian's.  His  masterpiece 
is  a  full-length  "  St.  Barbara,"  the  central  figure  of  an  altar- 
painting  in  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  Formosa,  Venice. 
He  is  represented  in  the  Venice  Academy  by  an  "  Assump- 
tion," the  "  Raising  of  the  Son  of  the  Widow  of  Nain,"  and 
a  "St.  Peter  with  Saints."  Many  of  his  "Holy  Families" 
and  "  Holy  Conversations  "  are  in  Continental  collections,  es- 
pecially the  "  Virgin  in  a  Vine- Arbor  "  at  Munich.  His  pict- 
ure of  his  daughters,  at  Dresden,  called  the  "Three  Graces," 
or  the  "  Three  Sisters,"  is  very  interesting  from  the  story  that 
Titian  was  deeply  in  love  with  the  central  sister,  named  Vio- 
lante,  whose  features  may  be  traced  in  his  "  Flora  "  and  other 
faces.  Violante's  single  portrait,  by  her  father,  is  in  the  Bel- 
vedere, Vienna.  Palma  Vecchio  is  often  confounded  with 
his  nephew,  the  younger  Palma,  a  later  artist  of  much  less 
ability,  whose  best  painting  is  "  The  Three  Horsemen  of  the 
Apocalypse,"  in  the  Venice  Gallery. 

But,  though  Palma  never  pretended  to  rival  Titian,  his 
contemporary  Pordenone  (1484-1539),  or  rather  Giovanni 
Antonio  Licinio  Regillo,  called  Pordenone  from  his  birth- 


PAINTING  IN  VENICE. 

209 

place,  aspired  to  that  honor.  It  is  difficult  to  see  on  what 
qualities  the  competition  was  founded,  for  though  he  painted 
life-like  and  rich-toned  portraits,  and  grouped  his  composi- 
tions in  a  spirited  manner,  he  is  not  by  any  means  to  be  com- 
pared with  Titian,  of  whom  he  professed  himself  in  such 
dread  that  he  painted  with  his  shield  and  poniard  lying  at 
his  side.  His  best  productions  are  his  portraits,  renowned 
for  their  tender  flesh-tints  ;  his  altar-pieces  in  the  Gallery  of 
Venice;  and  his  "Woman  taken  in  Adultery,"  in  the  Mu- 
seum of  Berlin. 

Sebastian  del  Piombo  (1485-1547),  another  Venetian 
artist  whose  life  was  mostly  spent  at  Rome,  claims  our  atten- 
tion from  the  fact  that  Michael  Angelo  thought  him  worthy 
to  compete  with  Raphael  for  the  favor  of  Pope  Leo  X.  He 
was  a  pupil  or  follower  of  Giorgione,  whose  intensity  of 
coloring  he  partially  acquired,  but  never  learned  to  design 
correctly.  Coming  early  to  Rome,  he  gained  celebrity,  and 
entered  into  intimacy  with  Michael  Angelo.  The  following 
have  been  given  as  their  points  of  congeniality :  "  They  were 
alike  in  temperament,  impulsive  and  realistic ;  they  loved 
Nature  alike ;  they  hated  Raphael  together ;  they  equally 
detested  monks  and  friars ;  they  both  loved  out-door  sketch- 
ing for  a  recreation  ;  they  were  alike  in  their  muscular  forms, 
and  both  were  left-handed."  Sebastian's  "Raising  of  Laza- 
rus," now  in  the  National  Gallery,  London,  was  executed  in 
rivalry  with  Raphael's  "  Transfiguration."  Michael  Angelo  is 
said  to  have  assisted  in  its  outlines.  After  Raphael's  death 
Sebastian  was  universally  praised  and  flattered.  Clement 
VII.  appointed  him  keeper  of  the  Piombi,  or  seals  of  the 
Roman  Chancery,  on  which  account  he  is  entitled  "  del  Pi- 


210  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

ombo,"  his  real  name  being  Sebastiano  Luciano.  Together 
with  the  "Raising  of  Lazarus,"  his  most  forcible  paintings 
are  "  The  Scourging  of  Christ,"  a  fresco  in  St.  Pietro  in 
Montorio,  Rome,  repeated  on  a  small  scale  in  the  Borghese 
collection  ;  a  "  Descent  into  Hades,"  at  Madrid ;  the  "  Mar- 
tyrdom of  St.  Agatha,"  in  the  Pitti  Palace,  Florence ;  and  a 
"  Holy  Family,"  at  Naples.  The  Naples  Gallery  also  con- 
tains some  admirable  portraits,  for  which'  he  was  deservedly 
famous.  One  of  Andrea  Doria,  at  the  Doria  Palace,  Rome, 
and  another  of  Cardinal  Pole,  at  St.  Petersburg,  are  peculiarly 
excellent.  Singularly  enough,  he  has  scarcely  a  single  picture 
in  Venice.  The  "  Dream  of  Human  Life,"  in  the  London 
Gallery,  popularly  ascribed  to  Michael  Angelo,  might  be  more 
correctly  marked  as  the  work  of  Sebastian. 

Bonifazio  Veneziano  (1494-1563),  or  Bonifazio  Bembi, 
a  pupil  of  the  elder  Palma,  but  a  clever  imitator  of  Titian, 
has  left,  among  a  number  of  comparatively  feeble  works, 
some  few  pleasing  sacred  scenes,  conceived  in  true  Venetian 
style.  Perhaps  the  most  celebrated  of  these  is  the  "  Finding 
of  Moses,"  in  the  Brera,  Milan,  long  attributed  to  Giorgione. 
It  is  a  very  extraordinary  composition — just  a  Venetian  pleas- 
ure-party of  ladies  and  gentlemen  in  superb  costumes  of  bro- 
cade and  velvet,  enjoying  themselves  in  a  cheerful  Italian 
landscape.  Pharaoh's  daughter  has  her  retinue  of  dogs, 
monkeys,  dwarfs,  troubadours,  and  maids-of-honor.  The 
little  Moses  in  the  bulrushes  is  an  entirely  secondary  consid- 
eration. Another  characteristic  picture  is  his  "  Banquet  of 
Dives,"  in  the  Venice  Academy.  Dives,  clothed  in  red  vel- 
vet, sits,  in  the  light  of  afternoon,  at  a  table  between  two 
females,  one  of  whom  listens  to  singers  and  players  on  the 


PAINTING  IN  VENICE.  2II 

lute.  The  scene  is  an  open  hall,  with  a  stately  garden  vista, 
crowded  with  horses,  grooms,  and  falconers.  Some  little 
distance  from  the  group,  Lazarus,  the  beggar,  is  sent  away  by 
a  page. 

A  very  different  style  of  sacred  subjects  is  given  us  by 
Alessandro  Bonvicino  of  Brescia  (1500-1560),  commonly 
called  "  II  Moretto."  He  was  a  gentle,  pious  man,  who  has 
left  many  valuable  productions  in  his  native  city,  but  whose 
most  striking  works  have  been  purchased  by  German  gal- 
leries. The  "  St.  Justina,"  at  Vienna,  is  his  most  successful 
effort.  The  kneeling  St.  Cyprian,  beside  Justina,  is  believed 
to  be  a  portrait  of  the  Duke  of  Ferrara.  The  Berlin  Mu- 
seum possesses  two  very  large  paintings,  a  "  Madonna  and 
Child  "  with  their  votaries  below,  and  a  colossal  "  Adoration 
of  the  Shepherds."  The  Dresden  Gallery  has  a  sweet,  con- 
templative, full-length  Madonna,  robed  entirely  in  neutral 
tints. 

His  pupil,  Giovanni  Battista  Moroni  (1510-1578),  who, 
as  a  Venetian  portraitist,  is  only  eclipsed  by  Titian,  confined 
himself  almost  wholly  to  that  branch  of  art.  One  of  his 
most  vivid  likenesses  is  that  of  a  Jesuit,  in  the  Duke  of 
Sutherland's  collection;  often  spoken  of  as  "Titian's  School- 
master." He  is  leaning  forward  in  his  chair,  with  his  fin- 
gers between  the  leaves  of  a  book.  Moroni's  own  portrait 
is  in  the  Berlin  Museum. 

Other  graceful,  rosy-tinted  portraits  by  Paris  Bordone,  of 
Treviso  (1500-1570),  are  also  in  German  and  Italian  muse- 
ums. He  particularly  excelled  in  female  heads,  though  he 
produced  some  historical  and  classical  pieces.  His  chef- 
d'<xiiTre  is  the  "  Doge  and  Fisherman,"  in  the  Venice  Gal- 


212  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING 

lery;  while  "Augustus  and  the  Tiburtine  Sibyl,"  at  Florence, 
though  less  effective,  is  very  significantly  rendered.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  called  "  Paris  "  from  his  sojourn  in  that 
city.  His  successor,  Andrea  Schiavone,  or  Andrea  Medola 
(1522-1582),  a  melancholy  and  feeble  painter,  though,  like  all 
Venetians,  a  good  colorist,  deserves  but  a  passing  mention. 
An  "  Adoration  of  the  Shepherds,"  at  Vienna,  and  a  "  Christ 
before  Pilate,"  at  Naples,  are  among  the  few  creations  of  his 
brush  which  rise  above  mediocrity. 

The  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  still  contemporary 
with  the  old  age  of  Titian,  was  enriched  by  the  labors  of  two 
distinguished  painters,  even  more  purely  Venetian,  though 
less  able,  than  Titian  himself.  The  elder  of  these,  Jacopo 
Robusti  (1512-1594),  remembered  as  Tintoretto  from  the 
trade  of  his  father,  "  II  Tintoret,"  the  dyer,  began  to  design 
on  the  walls  of  the  paternal  dye-house,  and  was  in  his  early 
days  the  pupil  of  Titian,  who  is  reported  to  have  become 
jealous  of  his  promising  talents,  and  to  have  turned  him 
away  from  his  studio.  Nothing  daunted  by  such  repulse,  the 
bold  young  man  still  persisted  in  copying  his  master's  works ; 
and  also  procured  casts  of  Michael  Angelo's  statues  from 
Florence,  which  he  studied  in  every  conceivable  position,  often 
suspending  his  models  in  the  air  that  he  might  get  effects  of 
foreshortening,  or  drawing  from  them  by  lamp-light  in  order 
to  secure  more  forcible  shadows.  On  the  wall  of  his  own 
painting-room  he  inscribed  the  modest  motto,  "  The  drawing 
of  Michael  Angelo,  with  the  coloring  of  Titian  !  "  and  im- 
petuously struggled  to  combine  these  impossible  excellences. 
The  result  is  often  most  extraordinary,  for  the  wild  vigor  of 
his  imagination  was  such  that  many  of  his  pictures  look  as  if 


PAINTING  IN  VENICE. 

they  might  have  been  the  pastime  of  a  delirious  giant.  He 
painted  so  rapidly  that  he  acquired  the  surname  of  "  II  Furi- 
oso  ;  "  his  love  for  the  nude  and  the  muscular  was  as  sincere 
as  Michael  Angelo's ;  while  the  immensity  of  his  pictures 
would  have  convinced  the  great  Florentine  that  oil-painting 
was  not  always  "work  for  women."  His  "  Paradise,"  in  the 
Ducal  Palace,  Venice,  is  seventy-four  feet  long  and  thirty 
high.  It  was  intended  to  suggest  celestial  bliss  and  beauty ; 
but  its  four  hundred  figures,  distractedly  whirling  through  a 
furnace-like  sky,  give  it  rather  the  air  of  what  Charles  Blanc 
calls  an  "  illuminated  Erebus."  Other  vast  compositions 
adorn  the  same  building.  The  old  school  of  San  Rocco 
treasures  in  its  dim  and  dreary  chambers  fifty-seven  more  of 
his  pictures,  principally  sacred,  but  all  designed  with  the 
same  exuberance,  inequality,  vigor,  disproportion,  coarse- 
ness, and  sublimity.  In  one  of  its  rooms  we  find  the  "  Cru- 
cifixion," frequently  called  his  masterpiece.  An  upraised 
Christ  on  the  cross  is  in  the  centre ;  while  eighty  moving 
figures,  executioners,  populace,  soldiers,  horsemen,  women, 
disciples,  now  faded  into  dimness  of  color,  mingle  in  inex- 
tricable confusion,  and  amaze  yet  weary  us  with  profuse 
detail. 

These  inexhaustible  productions  are  also  plentifully  dis- 
tributed through  Venetian  churches.  Santa  Maria  della  Orte 
possesses  some  colossal  examples.  The  "  Presentation  of  the 
Virgin,"  similar  in  design  to  Titian's  large  canvas  in  the 
Academy,  but  differently  treated,  is  unusually  pleasing.  The 
"  Worship  of  the  Golden  Calf  "  is  enormous  and  characteris- 
tic. A  wild  and  weird  "  Last  Judgment,"  very  repulsive  in 
style,  is  described  by  Ruskin  in  a  marvelous  piece  of  word- 


2I4  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

painting.  A  "  Last  Supper  "  in  St.  Trovaso  is  as  far  removed 
as  possible  from  the  dignified  and  solemn  conception  of 
Leonardo  da  Vinci.  St.  John  is  fast  asleep.  "  The  central 
figure  is  a  large,  kneeling  servant,  her  head  in  shadow,  and 
her  shoulder  luminous ;  she  holds  a  platter  of  beans,  and  is 
bringing  in  dishes ;  a  cat  attempts  to  climb  up  her  basket. 
Round  about  are  buffets,  domestics,  ewers,  and  disciples,  in  a 
perpendicular  file,  bordering  a  long  table.  It  is  a  supper,  a 
veritable  evening  repast.  Above  the  table  glimmers  a  lamp, 
while  a  blue  light  from  the  moon  falls  on  their  heads ;  but 
the  supernatural  enters  on  all  sides ;  in  the  background  by 
an  opening  in  the  sky,  and  a  choir  of  radiant  angels ;  on  the 
right  by  a  swarm  of  pale  angels  whirling  about  in  the  noctur- 
nal obscurity." 

The  best,  least-exaggerated,  and  most  agreeably-colored 
of  Tintoretto's  pictures  is  undoubtedly  the  "  Miracle  of  St. 
Mark,"  in  the  Venice  Gallery,  which  Viardot  classes  with  the 
finest  paintings  in  the  world.  It  may,  however,  be  justly  ad- 
mired without  exalting  it  to  such  honor.  We  behold  St.  Mark's 
dark  figure  against  a  clear  sky,  plunging  through  the  air,  head 
downward,  to  deliver  a  slave  from  the  hands  of  the  heathen. 
The  slave,  in  a  white  garment,  has  been  flung  to  the  earth  by 
his  persecutors,  who  stand  aghast  at  the  interference  of  his 
protector.  The  varied  draperies  and  figures  of  the  populace, 
and  broad,  massive  architecture  of  the  background,  give 
deep  intensity  or  vivid  gleams  of  color  to  every  part  of  the 
composition. 

Only  a  few  of  Tintoretto's  less  striking  pictures,  with  the 
exception  of  some  good  portraits,  have  been  removed  from 
Venice.  He  left  an  artist  son,  Domenico,  who  is  represented 


PAINTING  IN  VENICE.  2 

in  the  gallery  ;  while  his  daughter  Marietta,  who  died  when 
but  thirty  years  of  age,  had  gained  such  a  reputation  for 
painting  that  she  was  invited  to  the  court  of  Philip  of  Spain, 
but  refused  to  leave  her  father.  He  survived  her  four  years, 
and  died  at  the  age  of  eighty-two. 

The  more  popular  and  fascinating  Paul  Veronese,  or 
Paolo  Cagliari  of  Verona  (1528-1588),  mingled  a  silvery  clear- 
ness with  the  amber,  purple,  and  crimson  of  former  Venetian 
colorists,  and  adorned  his  paintings  with  such  a  pomp  of 
decoration  and  accessories  as  dazzled  even  Italian  eyes.  A 
perpetual  pageant  is  embodied  on  his  canvas;  his  subjects 
may  be  sacred,  but  their  rendering  is  splendidly  secular.  In 
tone  and  treatment  he  reminds  us  of  Rubens,  though  his 
imagination  is  more  luxurious  and  refined.  He  is  peculiarly 
noted  for  banqueting-scenes,  painted  for  the  refectories  of 
wealthy  convents.  Four  of  these  festivals  have  long  been 
famous — the  "  Marriage  of  Cana,"  the  "  Feast  in  the  House  of 
Simon  the  Pharisee,"  the  "  Feast  in  the  House  of  Levi,"  and 
the  "  Supper  in  the  House  of  Simon  the  Leper."  Two  of 
these  are  now  in  Paris,  and  two  in  Venice.  Smaller  repeti- 
tions are  occasionally  seen  in  other  galleries.  The  "  Marriage 
of  Cana,"  in  the  Louvre,  thirty  feet  long  and  twenty  high, 
with  more  than  a  hundred  and  twenty  figures,  many  of  which 
are  over  life-size,  is  said  to  be  the  largest  easel-picture  in  the 
world.  It  is  a  magnificent  feast  in  a  marble  porch  whose 
colonnades  melt  on  each  side  into  perspective.  Its  spacious 
vista,  as  well  as  the  balcony  above,  is  crowded  with  servants, 
spectators,  and  musicians.  The  table  is  spread  with  a  sump- 
tuous array  of  gold  and  silver  vessels,  while  among  the 
gayly-appareled  guests,  attended  by  negroes,  pages,  and  jest- 


216  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

ers,  we  find  it  at  first  difficult  to  distinguish  the  figures  of  the 
Saviour  and  the  Virgin,  to  whose  costumes  an  aureole  has 
been  added.  Many  portraits  enhance  the  interest  of  the 
piece.  The  bride  is  supposed  to  be  Eleanor  of  Austria,  sec- 
ond wife  of  Francis  I.  Francis  himself  is  at  her  side.  Mary 
of  England  is  near  them,  in  yellow  drapery.  Vittoria  Colon- 
na  sits  a  little  farther  off,  holding  a  toothpick.  All  the  great 
Venetian  painters  are  represented  among  the  musicians. 
Veronese  himself,  clad  in  white  silk,  plays  a  violoncello ; 
Tintoretto,  just  behind,  accompanies  him ;  Titian,,  on  the 
other  side,  plays  the  bass ;  Bassano  is  engaged  with  the  flute. 

The  "  Feast  in  the  House  of  Levi,"  in  the  Venice  Acad- 
emy, is  smaller,  but  quite  as  beautiful.  We  are  not  so  much 
interested  in  the  figures,  but  are  more  impressed  with  its 
airiness  and  brilliancy.  Its  marvelous  perspective,  superb 
architecture,  and  splendor  of  coloring,  render  it  one  of  the 
most  attractive  pictures  in  the  gallery.  Almost  as  sumptuous, 
but  much  more  incongruous,  is  the  large  painting  of  the 
"  Supper  at  Emmaus,"  in  the  Louvre,  where  the  whole  family 
of  the  artist  is  introduced  with  the  disciples,  and  the  fore- 
ground is  occupied  by  his  little  girls,  merrily  playing  with  an 
immense  dog.  Quite  a  number  of  other  "  Veroneses "  are 
found  in  the  Louvre,  including  the  "  Feast  in  the  House  of 
Simon  the  Pharisee."  The  architectural  backgrounds  and 
elegant  ornaments  of  these  entertainments  were  often  exe- 
cuted by  his  brother  Benedetto.  His  son  Carlo  was  also  an 
artist,  but  died  when  only  twenty-six. 

Paul  Veronese's  best  historical  paintings  were  ordered  by 
the  church  of  San  Sebastian,  Venice,  in  illustration  of  the 
legend  of  the  saint.  Many  of  these  are  now  placed  in  the 


PAINTING  IN  VENICE 

217 

Gallery  of  Venice,  during  the  restoration  of  the  church.  His 
most  gorgeous  decorative  work  was  undertaken  for  the  Ducal 
Palace,  especially  his  splendid  mythological  and  allegorical 
representations  of  the  "Rape  of  Europa,"  and  the  "Apo- 
theosis of  Venice."  The  collections  of  Europe  have  eagerly 
purchased  his  pictures.  Besides  those  already  alluded  to  in 
the  Louvre,  we  have  the  "Adoration  of  the  Kings,"  the 
"  Good  Samaritan,"  "  Christ  healing  the  Centurion's  Servant," 
and  several  others,  at  Dresden ;  another  "  Adoration  of  the 
Kings,"  and  "  Jesus  with  Martha  and  Mary,"  at  the  Brera, 
Milan;  the  "Queen  of  Sheba  before  Solomon,"  and  the 
"  Magdalene  anointing  the  Feet  of  Christ,"  in  the  Royal  Gal- 
lery, Turin ;  together  with  a  "  Consecration  of  St.  Nicholas," 
and  the  "  Family  of  Darius,"  in  the  London  Gallery.  The 
"  Family  of  Darius  "  is  really  a  rich  portrait-group  of  the  Pi- 
sani  family  in  their  national  costumes. 

After  the  death  of  Veronese,  in  1588,  no  more  such  ex- 
tensive and  brilliant  works  were  attempted.  A  genius  for 
color  still  lingered,  but  it  was  chiefly  employed  on  much 
smaller  subjects.  Many  of  these  were  skillfully  executed  by 
a  succession  of  artists  known,  from  their  birthplace,  as  the 
Bassano  family.  The  father,  Jacopo  da  Ponte  (1510-1592), 
may  be  termed  the  first  Italian  genre-painter.  He  developed 
a  taste  for  sheep,  cattle,  beasts,  and  poultry,  natural  enough 
in  a  country  like  Holland,  but  quite  extraordinary  in  Venice, 
where  even  a  horse  is  but  a  traditional  animal.  As  he  was 
well  patronized,  he  educated  his  four  sons  to  the  same  pro- 
fession, and  their  pictures  became  popular  throughout  Italy, 
Germany,  and  Spain.  Some  of  the  best,  thronged  with  his 
favorite  beasts,  are  in  the  Gallery  of  Madrid.  Some  beauti- 


2J8  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

fully-finished  specimens  are  also  in  England.  His  coloring 
was  deep  and  glowing,  with  gem-like  sparkle,  which  lent  a 
charm  even  to  his  homeliest  details.  One  of  his  often-repeated 
subjects  is  "  Christ  in  the  House  " — or  rather  in  the  kitchen — 
"of  Martha,"  apparently  chosen  more  from  an  innate  love  of 
pots  and  pans  than  of  any  sacred  symbolism.  In  his  "  Sup- 
per at  Emmaus  "  a  cook  stands  at  the  fire,  and  a  servant  is 
arranging  cups.  One  of  his  daughters  is  said  to  have  served 
him  as  a  model,  "  sometimes  personating  the  Queen  of  Sheba, 
sometimes  a  Magdalene,  and  sometimes  a  peasant-girl  with 
poultry."  He  had  the  strange  habit  of  always  hiding  the  feet 
of  his  figures,  using  various  devices .  for  the  purpose,  or  occa- 
sionally concealing  them  under  old  household  utensils.  His 
portraits  are  admirably  rendered,  and  display  the  fine  quali- 
ties of  the  Venetian  school. 

Our  notice  of  this  school  may  fitly  end  with  a  brief  men- 
tion of  two  accomplished  painters  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
Antonio  Canale,  and  his  nephew  Bernardo  Bellotti,  spoken 
of  as  Canale  and  Canaletto,  who  made  views  of  Venice  their 
specialty.  Their  pictures  are  quite  common,  except  in  their 
native  city,  where  they  are  exceedingly  rare.  The  largest 
number  will  be  found  in  the  Dresden  Gallery.  Meanwhile 
we  must  consider  what  had  been  doing  in  the  other  parts  of 
Italy,  while  Tintoretto  was  furiously  at  work  for  Venetian 
buildings,  and  Veronese  banqueting  at  his  brilliant  feasts. 


CHAPTER   X. 

LATER   ITALIAN    PAINTING. 

WITH  the  death  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Michael  Angelo, 
Raphael,  Correggio,  and  Titian,  ceases  the  glorious  sunshine 
of  Italian  art.  Henceforth  its  light  was  to  beam  from  lesser 
luminaries,  in  feebler  rays.  Yet  before  we  reach  the  period 
of  its  decline,  or  even  before  we  notice  the  immediate 
scholars  who  cluster  like  satellites  around  those  mighty 
artists,  we  must  speak  of  a  painter  whom  one  hesitates  to 
place  either  in  the  first  or  second  rank — inferior,  indeed,  to 
Raphael  and  Correggio,  yet  so  superior  to  most  of  his  col- 
leagues that  he  was  known  among  his  countrymen  as  "  An- 
drea the  Faultless." 

This  faultless  Andrea,  whose  story  seems  rather  a  satire 
on  such  an  adjective,  was  the  son  of  a  Florentine  tailor, 
Agnolo  Vannucchi,  and  is  called  Andrea  del  Sarto,  in  allusion 
to  his  father's  occupation.  Born  in  1487,  and  apprenticed 
when  but  seven  years  old  to  a  goldsmith,  he  proved  so  stupid 
in  chiseling  and  so  expert  in  drawing,  that  he  was  transferred 
to  the  studio  of  a  neighbor,  Gian  Barile,  and  afterward  rec- 
ommended to  Piero  di  Cosimo,  in  whose  service  he  had  an 
opportunity  to  study  the  grand  cartoons  of  Michael  Angelo 


220 


SCHOOLS  AND.  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING 


and  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  together  with  the  milder  creations 
of  Fra  Bartolomeo.  His  friend  Francia  Bigio,  a  pupil  of 
Mariotto  Albertinelli,  soon  proposed  to  him  a  partnership  in 
which  they  should  live  and  paint  together,  refreshing  them- 
selves after  the  labors  of  their  profession  by  merry  dinners  at 
an  artists'  club  styled  the  "Company  of  the  Kettle."  Their 
first  commission  was  for  frescoes  at  the  Scrflzo,  Florence, 
where  the  "Baptism  of  Christ "  appears  to  be  a  joint  pro- 
duction ;  but  they  quickly  obtained  more  important  employ- 
ment from  the  Brotherhood  of  the  Servi,  in  the  court  of  the 
Annunziata,  where  we  still  delight  to  trace  out  Andrea's 
charming  frescoes.  These  began  with  a  series  from  the  life 
of  San  Filippo  Benizzi,  and  closed  with  a  "  Nativity  of  the 
Virgin,"  and  "Procession  of  the  Magi,"  which  are  among  his 
most  admirable  remains.  With  soft,  clear  tints,  and  coloring 
more  varied  and  melting  than  that  of  the  older  Florentines, 
he  secured  effects  which  gave  promise  of  unreached  heights 
of  excellence.  Michael  Angelo  thought  so  well  of  his  talents 
that  he  remarked  to  Raphael,  "There  is  a  little  fellow  in 
Florence  who  will  bring  sweat  to  your  brow  if  ever  he  is 
engaged  in  great  works."  Perhaps  the  prophecy  might  have 
been  fulfilled  if  Andrea's  eye  for  beauty  could  always  have 
been  fixed  upon  the  ideal ;  unfortunately  it  fastened  upon 
the  real  seductiveness  of  a  baker's  wife,  Lucrezia  Fedi,  whom 
he  married  in  haste  as  soon  as  she  became  a  widow,  and 
repented  at  leisure  ever  after.  This  lovely  but  unprincipled 
woman,  to  whom  he  was  evidently  profoundly  attached, 
served  as  a  model  for  all  his  Madonnas.  We  see  her  in  his 
masterpiece,  the  Madonna  of  the  Uffizi,  who  looks  down  from 
her  pedestal  upon  St.  Francis  and  St.  John ;  and  in  all  the 


LATER  ITALIAN  PAINTING.  22, 

subsequent  Virgins  of  his  Annunciations  and  Holy  Families. 
She  slighted  his  affection,  wasted  his  substance,  compelled 
him  to  support  her  relatives,  harassed  him  with  jealousy  and 
domestic  grievances,  and  finally  persuaded  him  to  an  unfaith- 
fulness which  dishonored  his  life  and  burdened  his  con- 
science with  self-reproach — the  embezzlement  of  funds  in- 
trusted to  him  by  Francis  I. 

This  King  of  France,  so  liberal  a  patron  of  the  arts,  had 
seen  a  "  Madonna,"  and  a  "  Dead  Christ  with  Angels,"  exe- 
cuted by  Del  Sarto,  which  induced  him  to  send  an  invitation 
to  the  painter  to  visit  his  court.  The  invitation  was  accepted, 
and  Andrea  was  employed  on  a  likeness  of  the  infant  Dau- 
phin, and  on  the  "  Charity,"  now  in  the  Louvre,  as  well  as  on 
other  pictures,  for  which  he  was  lavishly  compensated.  But 
his  wife  could  not  endure  that  he  should  escape  her  in- 
fluence, and  by  persistent  letters  induced  him  to  return  home, 
after  giving  the  king  a  solemn  promise  that  he  would  come 
back  to  France,  and  receiving  from  him  a  large  sum  of 
money,  to  be  expended  in  Italy  in  works  of  art  for  the  royal 
collections.  This  money  Lucrezia  beguiled  him  into  appro- 
priating to  his  own  use ;  she,  of  course,  securing  the  larger 
share.  Her  portrait,  which  he  was  never  weary  of  repeating, 
is  to  be  seen  at  Berlin,  Florence,  Munich,  and  Madrid. 
Browning  imagines  the  painter  thus  apostrophizing  her : 

"  But  had  you,  oh,  with  the  same  perfect  brow, 
And  perfect  eyes,  and  more  than  perfect  mouth, 
And  the  low  voice  my  soul  hears  as  a  bird 
The  fowler's  pipe,  and  follows  to  the  snare — 
Had  you,  with  these  the  same,  but  brought  a  mind !  " 

After   quitting   France,  Andrea   settled   permanently  in 


222  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS   OF  PAINTING. 

Florence,  and  resumed  his  early  engagements  with  the  Broth- 
erhood of  the  Scalzo.  In  1525  he  produced,  in  the  cloisters 
of  the  Annunziata,  the  beautiful  lunette  fresco  of  the  "  Repose 
of  the  Holy  Family,"  generally  termed  the  "  Madonna  del 
Sacco"  (Madonna  of  the  Sack),  which  is  one  of  the  treas- 
ures of  Florence.  None  should  fail  to  visit  his  wall-painting 
of  the  "Last  Supper,"  in  the  old  and  rather  remote  refectory 
of  San  Salvi.  Few  Cenacolas,  except  of  course  Leonardo  da 
Vinci's,  can  compare  with  it  in  vividness  of  effect  and  dra- 
matic grouping.  It  is  only  in  Florence,  where  he  died  of  the 
plague,  in  1530  or  1531,  that  Andrea  del  Sarto  can  be  satis- 
factorily studied ;  for,  though  we  find  his  "  Charity "  at  the 
Louvre,  a  "  Pieta  "  at  Vienna,  the  "  Sacrifice  of  Isaac  "  at  Dres- 
den and  Madrid,  five  "  Saints  "  in  the  cathedral  of  Pisa,  and  a 
"  Virgin  in  Glory  "  in  Berlin,  all  genuine  and  worthy  of  praise, 
yet  none  can  equal  his  "  Madonna  "  in  the  tribune,  and  his  own 
portrait  in  the  Gallery  of  the  Uffizi,  or  the  "  Dispute  on  the 
Trinity,"  "Madonna  in  Glory,"  "Assumption,"  "Annuncia- 
tion," "  Pieta,"  "  Portrait  of  Himself  and  Wife,"  and  seven  or 
eight  other  works  in  the  Gallery  of  the  Pitti.  In  both  frescoes 
and  oil-paintings  his  coloring  is  tender,  transparent,  and  most 
richly  and  luminously  blended;  with  a  certain  mistiness  of 
outline  which  melts  harmoniously  into  shadow.  His  arrange- 
ment of  his  compositions  is  striking  and  picturesque;  his 
figures  well-developed  and  graceful,  though  sometimes  want- 
ing in  refinement ;  and  he  himself  just  lacking  enough  noble- 
ness of  soul,  and  strength  of  style  and  character,  to  keep  him 
hovering  on  the  border-land  of  immortal  fame.  He  is  re- 
ported to  have  been  so  jealous  of  his  pupil,  Jacopo  Carucci, 
called,  from  his  birthplace,  "  Pontormo,"  that  he  expelled  him 


LATER  ITALIAN  PAINTING. 

9 

from  his  studio ;  but  the  envy  was  superfluous,  for  Pontormo 
never  attained  any  special  excellence,  except  as  a  portrait- 
painter.  Some  of  his  pictures  remain  in  the  Pitti  and  Uffizi, 
but  his  best  effort  is  the  portrait  of  Cosmo  de  Medici  at 
Berlin. 

Florentine  art-records  of  the  sixteenth  century  may  end 
with  a  mention  of  Pontormo 's  pupil,  Angiolo  Bronzino  (1502- 
1572),  who  imitated  and  occasionally  excelled  his  instructor 
in  portraits,  and  has  left,  as  his  masterpiece,  a  "  Descent  into 
Hades,"  in  the  Uffizi ;  and  of  his  nephew  Alessandro  Allori 
(1535-1607),  whose  mediocre  talents  as  a  portraitist  were  sur- 
passed by  his  more  celebrated  son,  Cristoforo  (1577-1621), 
whose  "Judith  with  the  Head  of  Holofernes,"  and  "Hospi- 
tality of  St.  Julian,"  in  the  Pitti  Palace,  are  much  admired. 
The  "  Judith  "  is  said  to  be  a  likeness  of  one  of  his  imperi- 
ous mistresses,  and  the  head  of  Holofernes  his  own  portrait. 

We  must  not,  however,  forget  Giorgio  Vasari,  of  Arezzo 
(1512-1574),  a  favorite  but  feeble  follower  of  Michael  Angelo, 
who,  though  of  little  account  as  a  painter,  has  placed  pos- 
terity under  a  debt  of  gratitude  for  his  entertaining  "  Biog- 
raphies of  Italian  Artists,"  which,  spite  of  inaccuracies,  will 
always  rank  among  standard  books.  Vasari's  ambition  was 
not  bounded  by  literature.  He  was  also  an  architect,  and 
considered  himself  an  able  painter ;  saying  of  his  works,  "  I 
did  them  with  a  conscience  and  love  which  render  them 
worthy,  if  not  of  praise,  at  least  of  indulgence."  Neverthe- 
less, such  of  his  easel-pictures  as  we  meet  in  Continental  cities 
are  very  uninteresting,  while  his  frescoes  are  also  but  second- 
rate.  The  best  exist  at  Rome  and  Arezzo. 

In  truth,  the  genius  of  the  sixteenth  century  had  concen- 


224 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


trated  in  Rome,  where  the  pupils  of  Raphael  were  striving  to 
perpetuate  their  master's  memory,  and  gain  some  share  in  his 
renown.  There,  too,  had  worked  Gian  Antonio  Bazzi,  or 
Razzi,  called  "  II  Sodoma,"  the  contemporary  of  Raphael, 
and  the  last  great  representative  of  the  Siennese  school. 
Though  born  at  Vercelli,  in  1474,  he  settled  at  Sienna,  and 
became  the  pride  of  the  city.  We  there  see  many  of  his  fres- 
coes in  the  palace  and  churches,  particularly  a  series  on  the 
life  of  the  Virgin  in  the  oratory  of  St.  Bernard,  and  another 
series  from  the  history  of  St.  Catharine  of  Sienna,  in  St.  Catha- 
rine's Chapel  in  San  Domenico,  containing  the  often-engiaved 
scene  of  the  "  Ecstasy  of  St.  Catharine  ;  "  while  other  trans- 
ferred frescoes  and  excellent  altar-pieces  are  now  in  the 
Academy,  especially  the  "  Christ  about  to  be  scourged,"  of 
which  Hawthorne  so  enthusiastically  speaks ;  and  a  "  Descent 
of  Christ  into  Limbo,"  where  Jarves  thinks  the  figure  of  Eve 
the  most  beautiful  form  ever  painted. 

Sodoma's  powers  were  original  and  varied.  His  type  of 
womanhood  was  always  extremely  sweet,  and  his  style  ear- 
nest, tender,  and  inclining  to  sadness ;  but,  in  strange  contra- 
diction to  these  qualities,  his  life  and  character  were  so  gay 
and  careless,  and  his  domestic  habits  so  absurdly  eccentric, 
that  his  wife  at  last  deserted  him,  complaining  that  he  filled  the 
house  with  a  menagerie  of  magpies,  monkeys,  and  frivolous 
company,  and  that  she  found  his  pet  raven  intolerable.  In 
1505  he  completed  the  frescoes  on  the  life  of  St.  Benedict  in 
the- convent  of  Monte  Oliveto  near  Sienna,  and  was  shortly 
after  summoned  to  Rome  by  Pope  Julius  II.,  who  employed 
him  in  wall-paintings  of  the  Vatican,  which  have  been  mostly 
effaced.  But  in  the  upper  story  of  the  Villa  Farnesina,  the 


LATER  ITALIAN  PAINTING.  2 

0 

same  building  adorned  by  the  classical  gems  of  Raphael,  are 
preserved  the  graceful  frescoes  of  the  "  Nuptials  of  Alexan- 
der and  Roxana,"  and  "  Alexander  in  the  Tent  of  Darius," 
to  which  visitors  are  seldom  admitted.  In  these  occurs  the 
softly-finished  and  lovely  head  of  Roxana,  with  its  drooping 
eyelids  and  wavy  hair,  so  suggestive  of  Leonardo.  He  has 
also  left  a  "  Madonna  "  in  the  Borghese  Palace,  Rome,  and  a 
youthful  "  St.  Sebastian  "  in  the  Uffizi,  Florence.  But  his 
later  works  must  besought  at  Sienna,  where  he  died  in  1549. 
The  decorations  of  the  Farnesina  Villa  were  continued 
by  Raphael's  followers,  Giulio  Romano  and  Francesco  Penni, 
from  the  charming  designs  of  the  myths  of  Psyche.  These 
two  artists  Raphael  considered  his  most  promising  pupils, 
and  between  them  he  divided  his  fortune.  Romano's  real 
name  was  Giulio  Pippi,  born  at  Rome  (1492-1546).  During 
his  apprenticeship  he  assisted  in  the  ceiling-frescoes  of  the 
Loggie  of  the  Vatican,  sometimes  termed  "  Raphael's  Bible," 
and  in  the  Stanze  of  the  same  palace ;  while  after  his  great 
master's  death  he  had  the  honor  to  complete  the  "  Battle  of 
Constantine  "  and  the  picture  of  the  "  Transfiguration,"  and 
then  attempted  some  independent  frescoes  in  the  Villa  Lanti 
and  Villa  Madama.  In  1524  the  Duke  of  Mantua  appointed 
him  architect  of  the  Palazzo  del  Te,  which  he  subsequently 
frescoed  with  the  story  of  "  Psyche  "  and  the  "  Overthrow  of 
the  Giants,"  adding  an  "Allegory  of  Human  Life"  in  a 
vaulted  chamber  in  the  garden.  He  also  painted  scenes  from 
the  Trojan  War  on  the  walls  of  the  Ducal  Palace ;  but  these 
Mantuan  frescoes,  while  they  display  his  study  of  the  antique, 
vigor  of  drawing,  splendor  of  color,  and  energy  of  action, 
grow  eventually  coarse  and  mannered,  and  show  degeneracy 


226  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

rather  than  improvement.  Giulio  so  devoted  himself  to  fres- 
co that  his  altar  and  easel  pieces  are  rare.  The  best  are  a 
"  Martyrdom  of  St.  Stephen,"  in  San  Stefano,  Genoa;  a  "  Holy 
Family,"  at  Dresden,  often  catalogued  as  the  "  Madonna  of 
the  Pitcher ;  "  an  "  Enthroned  Madonna,"  in  the  church  of 
Santa  Maria  dell'  Anima  at  Rome  ;  and  a  "  Nativity,"  in  the 
Louvre,  in  which  the  Roman  soldier  Longinus,  who,  at  the 
crucifixion,  pierced  the  side  of  Jesus  with  his  spear,  is  paint- 
ed in  the  foreground  beside  the  new-born  Child. 

Romano's  friend,  Francesco  Penni  (1488-1528),  surnamed 
"  II  Fattore,"  was  less  remarkable.  He  was  a  good  copyist, 
but  survived  Raphael  only  eight  years,  several  of  which  were 
spent  at  Naples,  where  a  few  pictures  by  him  yet  exist.  A 
"  Madonna  and  Child,  "  is  at  Berlin.  Other  Neapolitan  paint- 
ers, such  as  Andrea  da  Salerno  and  Polidoro  Caldara  (Polidoro 
da  Caravaggio),  were  also  formed  in  the  school  of  Raphael, 
but  none  of  them  possessed  any  genius  worth  mentioning. 

Perino  del  Vaga  (1500-1547),  another  of  Raphael's  assist- 
ants, was  a  poor  Florentine,  who  had  been  first  aided  by 
Ridolfo  Ghirlandajo,  and  was  then  taken  to  Rome  into  Ra- 
phael's studio.  In  after-years  he  worked  with  Romano  and 
Penni,  executed  the  frescoes  of  San  Marcello,  and  then  emi- 
grated to  Genoa,  where  he  frescoed  the  Doria  Palace  to  the 
great  satisfaction  of  his  princely  patron.  The  Bolognese 
school  of  Francia  also  sent  its  students  to  swell  the  number 
of  Raphael's  suite — Timoteo  della  Vite,  of  Urbino ;  Inno- 
cenzio  da  Imola,  whose  imitative  handiwork  we  find  at  Bo- 
logna and  Berlin ;  and  the  talented  Bartolomeo  Ramenghi,  of 
Bagnacavallo  (1484-1542),  whose  masterpiece — a  large  and 
lovely  "  Glorified  Madonna  " — is  in  the  Dresden  Gallery. 


LATER  ITALIAN  PAINTING.  22? 

Benvenuto  Tisio  (1481-1559),  the  most  able  artist  of 
Ferrara,  called  "  Garofalo,"  either  from  his  native  village,  or 
from  his  custom  of  marking  his  pictures  in  the  corner  with 
a  clove-pink  or  gilliflower,  was  equally  indebted  to  the  in- 
fluence of  Raphael.  Several  of  his  paintings  are  collected 
,  at  Ferrara,  including  a  very  curious  fresco  of  "  The  Triumph 
of  the  New  Testament  over  the  Old."  His  manner  was  ele- 
gant and  brilliant,  with  much  delicacy  of  touch  acquired 
from  the  admirers  of  Da  Vinci.  His  "  Sibyl  before  Augus- 
tus," formerly  in  the  Vatican ;  "  Entombment,"  in  the  Borghese 
Palace,  Rome ;  "  Martyrdom  of  St.  Lawrence,"  at  Naples ; 
and  "Apparition  of  the  Virgin  to  St.  Bruno,"  at  Dresden, 
are  large  and  important  works.  Many  will  remember  a  ten- 
der and  solemn  "Adoration  of  the  Child,"  also  in  the  Dresden 
Gallery;  while  smaller  specimens  abound,  both  in  England 
and  on  the  Continent. 

Two  other  contemporary  Ferrarese  artists,  the  brothers 
Dossi,  should  also  be  noticed.  Their  classical  frescoes  are 
still  among  the  attractions  of  the  Ducal  Palace  at  Ferrara. 
The  pictures  of  Dosso  Dossi  exhibit  a  rich  though  fantastic 
imagination,  and  almost  Venetian  vividness  of  color.  Some 
of  the  ablest  are  in  the  Borghese  Gallery,  especially  the 
"  Circe,"  an  enchantress  in  purple  and  gold,  reposing  in  a 
forest  landscape,  with  her  magic  circle  round  her,  and  the 
victims  of  her  spells  at  hand.  Several  of  his  altar-pieces 
adorn  the  Dresden  Gallery,  such  as  "  The  Four  Fathers  of 
the  Church,"  a  subject  repeated  at  Berlin.  The  brothers 
spent  some  time  at  Rome,  but  not  till  after  the  death  of  Ra- 
phael. 

Yet   it   was   not   simply   the   genius   of   Raphael   which 


228  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

modeled  the  later  Roman  school.  Other  painters  had  left 
their  traditions  and  their  influences.  The  traces  of  Michael 
Angelo's  mighty  impress  upon  art  did  indeed  soon  pass  away, 
for  Michael  Angelo  was  not  easy  to  imitate,  and  his  followers 
quickly  discovered  the  uselessness  of  the  attempt ;  but  the 
method  of  Correggio  offered  more  inducements :  and  we  con- 
sequently find  the  study  of  light  and  shade,  and  of  flowing 
curves  of  graceful  outline,  blending  largely  with  the  effort  after 
a  Raphaelesque  style  of  composition. 

No  one  displays  this  so  conspicuously  as  Francesco  Maz- 
zuola,  or  "  Parmagianino,"  born  at  Parma,  in  1503.  When 
scarcely  more  than  a  boy,  he  had  been  one  of  Correggio's 
assistants  on  the  dome  of  the  Parma  Cathedral,  and  thus 
caught  much  of  his  manner  and  expression.  Coming  to 
Rome  in  his  twentieth  year,  with  considerable  talent  and 
more  ambition,  he  applied  himself  to  the  imitation  of  Ra- 
phael, and  succeeded  in  producing  many  popular  works.  It 
is  narrated  that  during  the  sack  of  Rome  in  1527,  by  the 
army  of  the  Constable  de  Bourbon,  he  was  so  absorbed  in 
his  picture  of  the  "  Vision  of  St.  Jerome,"  now  in  the  Na- 
tional Gallery,  London,  that  he  never  heard  the  soldiery 
enter  his  studio ;  while  they  were  so  struck  by  the  beauty  of 
the  painting  that  they  left  the  artist  unmolested.  But  another 
version  of  the  story  goes  on  to  tell  that  upon  second  thoughts 
they  concluded  to  demand  a  ransom,  and  robbed  him  of  all 
he  had,  compelling  him  to  flee  in  poverty  to  Bologna,  where 
he  resided  for  four  years,  painting  the  altar-piece  of  "St. 
Margaret  "  now  shown  at  Bologna,  and  a  "  Madonna  "  in  the 
Pitti  Palace,  Florence,  familiarly  and  appropriately  spoken  of 
as  the  "  Madonna  del  Collo  Lungo  "  (with  the  long  neck}.  In 


LATER  ITALIAN  PAINTING.  22g 

1531  he  returned  to  Parma,  and  was  engaged  to  execute  the 
frescoes  of  the  church  of  the  Steccata,  containing  his  "  Moses 
with  the  Tables  of  the  Law,"  and  "  Eve  plucking  the  Forbidden 
Fruit."  The  fulfillment  of  this  contract  seemed  so  to  weary 
and  harass  him,  that,  after  many  delays  and  disputes,  he  fled 
to  Cremona,  where  he  died  in  1540. 

Vasari  describes  Parmagianino  as  exceedingly  handsome, 
"  with  rather  the  face  of  an  angel  than  that  of  a  man,"  mel- 
ancholy in  temperament,  and  fastidiously  sensitive  in  feeling. 
His  pictures  are  deficient  in  strength,  and  often  so  overdone 
in  elegance  as  to  fall  into  affectation ;  while  he  appears  to 
have  strangely  admired  long  waists,  long  necks,  and  long 
fingers,  and  to  have  had  a  theatrical  fondness  for  attitudiniz- 
ing. Yet  his  work  is  graceful  and  refined,  and  his  colors  are 
clear  and  soft,  while  his  portraits  rise  to  higher  excellence. 
One  of  these  fine  portraits,  sometimes  erroneously  cata- 
logued as  "  Columbus,"  is  in  the  Museum  of  Naples,  together 
with  another,  known  as  "  Parmagianino 's  Mistress."  The 
same  museum  possesses  his  "  Lucretia  stabbing  herself."  A 
pleasing  "  Madonna  della  Rosa  "  is  at  Dresden. 

Federigo  Baroccio,  of  Urbino  (1528-1612),  was  another 
artist  of  the  same  type ;  more  prolific,  and  more  prosperous. 
He,  too,  aspired  to  color  like  Correggio,  and  design  like  Ra- 
phael. His  early  effort?  at  Urbino  are  of  little  importance, 
but  he  was  patronized  at  Rome  by  Pope  Pius  IV.,  and  some 
of  his  compositions  are  at  present  in  the  Vatican.  He  can, 
however,  be  most  easily  seen  at  Florence,  where  his  works 
have  been  thought  worthy  of  giving  his  name  to  a  separate 
saloon  in  the  Gallery  of  the  Uffizi.  The  "  Madonna  del  Po- 
polo,"  or  the  Virgin  interceding  with  the  Saviour,  is  regarded 


230  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

as  his  masterpiece ;  but  the  "  Christ  and  the  Magdalen,"  in 
the  Corsini  Palace,  Rome,  equally  indicates  his  peculiarities. 
His  figures  are  frequently  strained  and  mannered,  and  his 
style  emotional  and  sensational,  with  dexterous  management 
of  light  and  shade,  but  too  much  redness  of  tint.  During  his 
youth  he  was  so  poisoned  by  a  jealous  rival  that,  though  his 
life  was  preserved,  his  health  was  irreparably  injured,  and  he 
was  never  again  able  to  paint  more  than  two  hours  a  day. 
Yet  his  industry  accomplished  surprising  results  during  his 
long  career  of  eighty-four  years,  at  whose  close  he  was  honor- 
ably buried  in  the  church  of  Santa  Francesca  at  Urbino.  His 
follower,  Ludovico  Cardi,  or  "Cigoli"  (1559-1613),  has  some 
good  paintings  in  the  Pitti  collection,  Florence,  and  a  grace- 
ful "Flight  into  Egypt,"  in  the  Louvre. 

The  brothers  Taddeo  and  Federigo  Zuccara,  of  the 
Roman  school,  were  also  employed  by  Pope  Pius  in  the 
Vatican.  They  won  an  extensive  reputation  during  their 
lifetime,  which  posterity  has  not  indorsed.  But  their  fres- 
coes and  historical  pictures  are  preserved  in  the  Sala  Regia 
and  Pauline  Chapel  of  the  Vatican,  in  the  cupola  of  the 
Duomo  at  Florence,  in  the  Ducal  Palace,  Venice,  and  in  the 
Castle  of  Caprarola.  The  "  Dead  Christ  mourned  by  Angels," 
in  the  Borghese  Palace,  Rome,  is  really  a  powerful  produc- 
tion ;  but  their  pictures  are  usually  smooth  and  insipid.  Fe- 
derigo was  president  of  the  Academy  of  St.  Luke  in  Rome, 
and  left  writings  on  art  of  no  merit.  Taddeo  died  in  1566, 
and  was  buried  near  Raphael  in 'the  Pantheon.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Giuseppe  Cesare,  the  "  Cavalier  d'Arpino  "  (1568- 
.1640),  who  is  also  represented  in  the  Borghese,  as  well  as  in 
the  ceiling  frescoes  of  the  choir  of  San  Sylvestro  on  Monte  Ca- 


LATER  ITALIAN  PAINTING.  2-j 

vallo,  Rome,  and  in  the  colossal  mosaics  of  the  "  Evangelists  "  in 
the  dome  of  St.  Peter's,  which  were  executed  after  his  designs. 

It  would  be  needless  to  enumerate  the  still  feebler  paint- 
ers who  flourished,  or  rather  declined,  in  the  waning  years 
of  the  sixteenth  century.  Art  was  flickering  and  dying,  not 
only  at  Rome,  but  throughout  all  Italy,  till  a  fresh  gleam  of 
genius  radiated  from  the  city  of  Bologna,  where  rose  the 
celebrated  school  of  the  Eclectics,  whose  aim,  as  their  name 
implies,  was  to  select  and  combine  the  beauties  of  all  their 
predecessors,  but  who  were  opposed,  and  to  a  certain  degree 
controlled,  by  the  party  of  the  Naturalisti,  who  insisted  that 
the  faithful  imitation  of  Nature,  and  the  rejection  of  all 
ideals,  should  be  the  motto  of  progress. 

The  founder  of  this  Bolognese  reform  was  Lodovico  Car- 
racci  (1555-1619),  a  persevering  and  painstaking  but  by  no 
means  brilliant  painter.  He  had  been  under  the  instruction 
of  Tintoretto,  but,  far  from  acquiring  the  rapid  method  of 
that  eccentric  master,  became  so  proverbial  among  his  com- 
panions for  slowness  and  plodding  that  he  received  the  nick- 
name of  the  "  Ox."  Yet  his  meditative  turn  of  mind  led  him 
to  ponder  the  faults  of  his  age,  and  to  seek  their  remedy ; 
and  as  the.  fruit  of  his  deliberations  he  determined  to  estab- 
lish a  school  of  his  own,  which,  without  aspiring  to  originality, 
should  exercise  the  principle  of  selection,  and  avail  itself  of 
the  merits  while  abandoning  the  errors  of  the  past.  To  this 
end  he  associated  with -himself  his  two  young  cousins,  Agos- 
tino  and  Annibale  Carracci,  sons  of  a  tailor,  but  full  of  pre- 
cocious talent,  whom  he  undertook  to  educate  and  direct. 
Together  they  promulgated,  under  the  poetic  form  of  a  son- 
net, the  new  maxims  which  were  to  regenerate  art : 
16 


232  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

"  Let  him  who  a  good  painter  would  be, 
Acquire  the  drawing  of  Rome ; 
Venetian  action,  and  Venetian  shadow, 
And  the  dignified  color  of  Lombardy ; 
The  terrible  manner  of  Michael  Angelo, 
Titian's  truth  and  nature, 
The  sovereign  purity  of  Correggio's  style, 
And  the  true  symmetry  of  Raphael " — 

with  more  advice  to  the  same  purport. 

Lodovico  was  better  calculated  to  enforce  than  to  practise 
his  own  theory;  yet  his  pictures,  most  of  which  remain  at 
Bologna,  display  a  conscientious  striving  after  the  desired 
effect.  About  a  dozen  of  his  altar  or  easel  pieces  hang  in  the 
Academy  of  Bologna,  the  most  conspicuous  being  a  "Ma- 
donna with  Sts.  Dominic,  Francis,  Clara,  and  Mary  Mag- 
dalene," all  portraits  of  the  Bargellini  family,  who  ordered  the 
painting.  Other  pictures  have  been  transferred  to  the  Louvre, 
and  to  Italian  and  German  galleries,  such  as  the  large  and 
dramatic  "  Pieta  "  in  the  Corsini  collection,  Rome.  But  his 
reputation  soon  merged  into  that  of  Agostino  and  Annibale 
Carracci,  born  respectively  in  1558  and  1560. 

Agostino's  special  excellence  was  as  a  teacher  and  en- 
graver. His  knowledge  of  his  profession  was  more  solid  and 
accurate,  though  less  practical,  than  Annibale's;  and  his 
paintings,  though  rare,  show  much  thought  and  ability.  A 
"  Communion  of  St.  Jerome,"  in  the  Academy  of  Bologna,  is 
the  original  source  from  which  Domenichino  afterward  drew 
his  famous  composition  on  the  same  subject.  Agostino  also 
assisted  in  the  extensive  frescoes  of  the  Farnese  Palace, 
Rome,  accomplished  by  his  brother  later  in  life.  These  fres- 
coes are  Annibale's  most  elaborate  memorial,  and  are 
counted  among  the  sights  of  Rome;  but  he  is  more  pleas- 


LATER  ITALIAN  PAINTING. 

91 

ingly  known  to  us  by  his  many  oil-paintings,  which  are  uni- 
versally appreciated;  though  his  imitation  of  the  artists  whom 
his  sonnet  recommended  is  often  more  ostentatious  than  per- 
fect. Still  we  can  perceive  that  he  truly  profited  by  his  studies, 
and  are  very  willing  to  admire  his  picturesque  renderings  of 
mythical  legends,  his  correct  drawing,  clear  color,  and  skill- 
ful handling  of  chiaro-oscuro.  We  find  him  well  developed  at 
Bologna,  and  abundantly  represented  by  twenty-six  works  in 
the  Louvre,  where  his  "  Madonna  of  the  Cherries,"  and  "  Ma- 
donna of  Silence,"  who  watches  the  sleeping  Infant,  with  her 
finger  on  her  lip,  are  even  more  popular  than  his  larger 
"Resurrection,"  and  "Appearance  of  the  Virgin  to  St.  Luke 
and  St.  Catharine."  His  Pietas,  Madonnas,  and  Holy  Fam- 
ilies, may  be  seen  in  all  countries.  The  "  Three  Marys,"  at 
Castle  Howard,  is  his  best  English  picture ;  while  a  "  Bac- 
chante," at  Naples,  though  very  unlike  in  theme,  exhibits  the 
same  vigorous  energy.  Versatile  on  principle  as  well  as  by 
talent,  he  also  turned  his  attention  to  pastoral  and  genre 
scenes,  and  has  left  us  several  landscapes  in  Rome,  Berlin, 
the  Louvre,  and  London,  with  a  few  such  small  productions 
as  "  The  Greedy  Eater,"  in  the  Roman  palace  of  the  Colonna. 
He  himself  considered  the  mythological  frescoes  of  the  Far- 
nese  as  the  crowning  strokes  of  his  genius,  and  never  re- 
covered from  his  disappointment  at  being  so  poorly  compen- 
sated and  so  badly  treated  by  the  noble  family  who  paid  him 
little  more  than  would  have  been  due  to  a  journeyman  appren- 
tice. He  died  in  1609,  and  was  honored,  like  Taddeo  Zuc- 
caro,  by  a  grave  in  the  Pantheon. 

His  rules  of  composition,  however,  did  not  die.   They  had 
been  adopted  by  a  band  of  enterprising  pupils,  all  of  whom 


234  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

worked  out  the  Eclectic  method  with  varied  success.  Those 
whom  we  shall  notice  had  a  real  foundation  of  genius,  upon 
which  they  built  as  they  had  been  taught,  influenced  also  by 
an  attraction  toward  Nature  and  stirring  life,  and  by  the 
dramatic  tendencies  of  the  age,  which  demanded  a  sensa- 
tional and  emotional  style  of  art,  to  restore  the  drooping  faith 
of  the  Church,  and  animate  wearied  passions.  "The  piety 
of  that  day  had  become  a  grand  orchestra  piety,  aiming  at 
conquering  the  public  by  dint  of  excitements."  Hence  their 
theatrical  Madonnas,  spasmodic  Magdalenes,  passionate  Pie- 
tas,  and  vivid  martyrdoms.  But  this  was  not  the  only  fault. 
From  the  effort  to  at  once  originate  and  copy,  to  conceive  yet 
reproduce,  frequently  resulted  the  most  glaring  want  of  unity ; 
till,  as  Taine  suggests,  the  expression  of  the  head  in  many 
pictures  contradicted  that  of  the  figures ;  "  and  one  saw  the 
airs  of  the  saint,  of  the  devotee,  of  the  fashionable  lady,  of 
the  young  page,  on  agitated  muscles  and  vigorous  bodies." 
This  tendency  is  visible  even  in  eminent  artists,  like  Guido 
and  Domenichino,  though  their  talents  generally  held  it  in 
check. 

Domenico  Zampieri,  known  as  Domenichino,  born  at 
Bologna,  in  1581,  is  regarded  as  the  most  distinguished  of 
the  Eclectics.  He  had  not,  indeed,  so  much  self-assertion  as 
his  colleague,  Guido  Reni,  nor  was  he  so  prolific ;  but  his 
compositions,  though  less  beautiful,  are  on  a  higher  plane  of 
sentiment,  as  may  be  perceived  from  his  frescoes  of  the 
"  Evangelists,"  in  San  Andrea  della  Valle,  Rome,  and  his 
"  Last  Communion  of  St.  Jerome,"  in  the  Vatican,  which,  as 
an  altar-piece,  ranks  next  to  Raphael's  "  Transfiguration." 
The  idea  he  borrowed  from  Agostino  Carracci,  but  the  details 


SIBYL  (Domenichino). 


P-33S- 


LATER  ITALIAN  PAINTING.  „- 

are  most  nobly  and  graphically  given,  and  will  be  described 
among  the  selection  of  "  World  Pictures."  A  "Communion 
of  the  Magdalene,"  with  angels  administering  the  last  sacra- 
ments, is  much  feebler  in  conception  and  execution.  His 
youthful  picture  of  the  "  Deliverance  of  St.  Peter  "  procured 
him  an  invitation  to  Rome,  where  he  devoted  himself  wholly 
to  his  profession. 

We  can  but  briefly  allude  to  his  "  Martyrdoms,"  in  which 
he  ministered  to  prevailing  fashions.  The  "Murder  of  St. 
Peter  of  Verona,"  and  the  "Martyrdom  of  St.  Agnes,"  at 
Bologna,  the  "  Martyrdom  of  St.  Sebastian,"  in  the  church  of 
Santa  Maria  degli  Angeli,  and  the  "Scourging  of  St.  An- 
drew," in  the  chapel  of  the  Saint  on  Monte  Celio,  Rome,  are 
the  most  notable  examples.  In  the  last  case  Domenichino 
was  commissioned  to  compete  with  Guido,  who  painted  "  St. 
Andrew  adoring  his  Cross,"  on  the  opposite  wall  of  the 
chapel,  and  obtained  the  preference  of  the  judges.  The  Bo- 
lognese  Academy  contains  other  Domenichinos,  such  as  the 
"  Madonna  of  the  Rosary ;  "  but  these  are  not  so  pleasing  as 
his  smaller  and  more  celebrated  pictures.  His  "Cumaean 
Sibyl,"  and  the  head  of  "  St.  John  the  Evangelist,"  of  inspired 
though  somewhat  feminine  loveliness,  have  become  every- 
where familiar  through  engravings.  The  original  of  the 
Sibyl,  with  her  parted  lips  and  her  robe  of  red,  must  be 
sought  in  the  Borghese  Palace,  Rome,  while  a  duplicate  exists 
in  the  Palace  of  the  Conservatori,  in  the  same  city.  The 
"  St.  John  "  was  also  twice  painted,  and  is  owned  by  an  Eng- 
lish nobleman  and  by  a  Russian  prince.  "Diana  and  her 
Nymphs  "  is  another  gem  of  the  Borghese  Palace,  and  a  "St. 
Cecilia,"  somewhat  original  in  design,  is  in  the  long  gallery 


236 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  -PAINTING. 


of  the  Louvre.  A  "Guardian  Angel,"  at  Naples;  a  "  St. 
Agnes,"  in  England  ;  frescoes  from  the  life  of  the  Virgin,  in 
a  chapel  of  the  cathedral  of  Fano ;  and  other  frescoes  at 
Grotto  Ferrata  from  the  history  of  St.  Nilus,  together  with 
his  landscapes  in  Rome  and  London,  complete  the  list  of 
Domenichino's  most  admirable  works. 

Doubtless  he  would  have  created  a  still  greater  reputation 
had  he  not  been  characterized  by  a  constitutional  timidity, 
which,  even  after  a  flattering  reception  at  Rome,  prevented 
him  from  taking  full  advantage  of  public  patronage,  and 
finally  emboldened  his  enemies  to  active  persecution — espe- 
cially at  Naples,  where  he  attempted  to  fresco  the  dome  of 
St.  Januarius,  but  was  driven  off  by  the  fierce  Neapolitan 
artists  who,  it  is  thought,  poisoned  him  in  1641.  It  is  stated 
that  for  the  magnificent  painting  of  "  St.  Jerome  "  he  was 
paid  but  a  pitiful  sum,  not  amounting  to  fifty  dollars  of  our 
money. 

Guido  Reni,  or  "  Guido,"  as  he  is  commonly  called,  sug- 
gests at  once  the  ideal  of  grace  and  beauty  which  his  best 
pictures  embodied.  He  has  been  extravagantly  lauded  and 
unreasonably  condemned.  An  impartial  study  of  his  works 
must  convince  us  that,  while  far  below  Raphael  and  Correggio, 
he  is  equally  far  above  the  insipidity  and  puerility  of  which 
he  is  accused.  No  fresco  in  the  world  is  more  beautiful  than 
his  "  Aurora,"  nor  any  portrait  more  pathetic  than  his  "  Bea- 
trice Cenci."  Both  of  these  will  be  subsequently  spoken  of, 
•but  we  shall  now  content  ourselves  with  some  details  of 
his  life. 

Born  at  Bologna  in  1575,  he  was  at  first  intended  for  a 
musician,  but  soon  quitted  his  flute  to  enter  the  studio  of  the 


LATER  ITALIAN  PAINTING 

237 

Carracci,  where  he  was  educated  with  Domenichino,  to  whom 
he  always  manifested  a- spirit  of  rivalry.  In  his  early  practice 
he  blended  the  precepts  of  the  Eclectics  with  the  maxims  of 
Caravaggio,  the  chief  of  the  Naturalisti,  and  so  modified  both 
by  mingling  them  with  his  own  ideal,  drawn  principally  from 
such  antiques  as  the  Niobe,  that  he  produced  a  variety  of 
styles :  one,  in  which  he  strove  to  copy  the  manner  of  Michael 
Angelo  and  the  powerful  shading  of  the  Neapolitans;  an- 
other, marked  by  warmth  of  color,  heightened  sentiment,  and 
flowing  lines  of  form,  which  comprises  his  finest  efforts ;  and 
a  third  still  later  and  "silvery"  tone,  where  the  picture 
seems  washed  in  in  delicate  and  airy  but  feeble  grays. 

Soon,  like  other  artists,  attracted  to  Rome,  he  there  made 
himself  a  home  for  twenty  years,  and  won  much  favor  both 
from  nobles  and  people.  The  "  Crucifixion  of  St.  Peter,"  in 
the  Vatican,  was  painted  for  Cardinal  Borghese,  after  the 
example  of  Caravaggio,  so  far  at  least  as  Guide's  refinement 
could  imitate  Caravaggio 's  coarseness.  No  one  now  enthu- 
siastically admires  it,  though  another  composition,  executed 
on  the  same  principles,  the  "  Madonna  della  Pieta,"  or  "  Our 
Lady  of  Pity,"  in  the  Bolognese  Museum,  was  considered 
grand  and  successful.  This  is  immense  in  size,  with  large, 
sorrowful  figures  above,  and  kneeling  saints  at  the  base ;  but 
it  is  by  no  means  so  fine  as  the  "  Crucifixion "  in  the  same 
gallery,  where  the  cross  has  its  usual  background  of  a  dark 
and  stormy  sky,  with  St.  John  in  red  drapery,  and  the  Virgin 
in  melancholy  blue,  enveloped  in  an  ashy  mantle,  grouped 
mournfully  below.  Even  this  is  not  so  impressive  as  his 
solemn  and  solitary  "  Crucifixion  "  in  the  church  of  San  Lo- 
renzo in  Lucina,  Rome. 


238 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


Guide's  popularity  at  Rome  was  well  tested  by  his  quarrel 
with  Pius  V.  The  artist,  in  a  fit  of  displeasure,  abandoned 
the  frescoes  which  engaged  him,  and  retired  to  Bologna ;  but 
the  pope  hastened  to  apologize,  desired  his  return  to  the  city, 
and  sent  an  equipage  to  meet  him.  The  frescoes  were  com- 
pleted, as  was  also  the  charming  "  Aurora,"  on  the  ceiling  of 
the  casino  of  the  Rospigliosi  Palace,  where  the  goddess, 
scattering  flowers,  precedes  the  chariot  of  Phoebus,  and  the 
rapidly  advancing  Hours.  Less  famous  and  sadly-damaged 
frescoes  will  be  found  in  the  chapels  adjoining  the  church  of 
St.  Gregory,  and  in  the  cathedral  of  Ravenna.  The  "Bea- 
trice Cenci "  portrait  is  in  the  Barberini  Palace,  Rome ;  an 
"  Ecce  Homo,"  a  subject  for  which  he  is  noted,  hangs  in  the 
Corsini  Palace;  while' others,  still  better,  are  at  Dresden  and 
Vienna.  "  St.  Michael  and  the  Dragon  "  is  the  pride  of  the 
gloomy  church  of  the  Capuchins,  Rome,  and  is  reproduced 
in  mosaic  in  St.  Peter's.  For  a  description  of  its  beauties 
our  readers  may  refer  to  Hawthorne's  "  Marble  Faun."  The 
archangel  is  not  so  divine  as  Raphael's  in  the  Louvre,  but  is 
exquisitely  graceful. 

Among  his  works  at  Bologna  may  yet  be  mentioned  the 
u  Massacre  of  the  Innocents,"  and  "  II  Pallione,"  a  glorified 
Madonna  with  patron  saints,  once  used  as  a  church  standard. 
At  Naples,  whence  he  too  was  driven  by  the  jealous  Natura- 
listi,  he  has  left  a  much-praised  "Nativity."  The  Louvre 
cannot  claim  any  of  his  really  excellent  pictures,  though  it 
possesses  quite  a  number  of  specimens,  such  as  "  The  Labors 
of  Hercules."  "The  Hermits  St.  Paul  and  St.  Anthony"  is 
at  Berlin,  "  Ninus  and  Semiramis  "  at  Dresden,  and  the  "  As- 
sumption of  the  Virgin  "  at  Munich.  Many  of  the  smaller 


HERODIADE  (Guido  Rent). 


p.  239. 


LATER  ITALIAN  PAINTING.  2,g 

pieces  with  which  European  collections  are  profusely  sup- 
plied belong  to  the  degenerate  years  when,  spoiled  by  pros- 
perity, he  addicted  himself  to  gambling,  and  painted  with 
facile  carelessness  a  host  of  pictures,  high  in  price  but  low 
in  merit,  which  he  only  valued  for  the  money  they  furnished 
him.  He  boasted  of  his  skill  and  sentiment  in  female  heads, 
and  used  to  say  he  had  two  hundred  different  ways  of  making 
the  eyes  look  toward  heaven — as  we  may  perceive  in  the  up- 
turned gaze  of  his  numerous  Madonnas,  Magdalenes,  Sibyls, 
and  St.  Sebastians.  His  extravagance  and  dissipation  outran 
his  wealth.  Burdened  with  heavy  debts,  he  fell  ill  from  mis- 
fortune and  wretchedness,  and  died  in  1642,  aged  sixty-seven. 
Francesco  Albani  (1578-1660),  also  a  native  of  Bologna, 
and  a  pupil  of  the  Carracci,  partook  of  Guido's  elegance, 
but  was  eminently  deficient  in  depth  and  strength.  The 
efforts  of  his  brush  run  mostly  in  one  line,  and  may  be  de- 
scribed as  playfully  classical.  Reposing  gods  and  goddesses, 
with  numberless  Cupids  dancing  round  them  in  Arcadian 
landscapes,  are  his  favorite  themes.  Occasionally,  indeed,  he 
varies  the  title  of  the  picture,  and  calls  it  a  Madonna,  or 
Flight  into  Egypt,  with  angels ;  but  the  composition  is  quite 
the  same.  His  little  Amorini  are  very  graceful,  charming, 
and  sportive,  and  very  easily  recognized.  Examples  are  not 
wanting  in  the  Louvre,  at  Dresden,  and  throughout  Italy. 
He  had  twelve  beautiful  children  of  his  own,  who  could  have 
served  him  as  models.  In  his  youth  he  appears  to  have  aimed 
at  religious  effect,  as  is  indicated  by  four  large  sacred  pieces 
at  Bologna,  but  after  settling  at  Rome  he  adapted  his  style  to 
his  tastes  and  ability.  He  has  been  termed  the  Anacreon  of 
painting ;  but,  though  gay  and  light  in  manner,  he  was  not 


240 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


lacking  in  ambition  or  appreciation,  and  showed  such  rever- 
ence for  the  memory  of  Raphael  that  he  always  uncovered 
his  head  at  the  mention  of  his  name.  The  frescoes  of  the 
Torlonia  Palace,  and  the  "  Four  Seasons  "  of  the  Borghese 
Gallery,  are  his  best  productions  at  Rome ;  but  he  is  richly 
represented  at  the  Louvre  b'y  the  "  Toilet  of  Venus,"  and 
twenty  other  pictures.  He  liked,  when  religiously  disposed, 
to  portray  the  "  Infant  Christ  asleep  upon  his  Cross,"  a  sub- 
ject peculiar  to  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries. 

Giovanni  Francisco  Barbieri,  surnamed  "  Guercino  "  on 
account  of  a  slight  squint,  was  born  at  Cento,  near  Bologna, 
in  1590.  He,  too,  was  a  disciple  of  the  Carracci,  and  a  son 
of  poor  parents.  As  he  advanced  in  life  he  acquired  fortune, 
and  delighted  to  use  it  for  the  benefit  of  young  artists  whom 
he  constantly  sought  out  and  assisted.  He  never  married, 
but  lived  in  great  seclusion  and  in  the  practice  of  constant 
devotion.  The  contrast  of  light  and  shade  is  more  marked  in 
his  pictures  than  in  those  of  Guido  and  Domenichino,  and 
he  had  more  solidity  and  passion,  though  less  grace  and 
sweetness.  He  followed  the  advice  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci  to 
paint  pictures  with  a  broad  light  from  above,  and  has  some- 
thing of  Caravaggio's  depth  of  tone  without  his  exaggerated 
darkness.  This  is  visible  in  his  excellent  frescoes  of  "  Au- 
rora" and  "Fama,"  in  the  Roman  Villa  Ludovisi.  The  Au- 
rora is  almost  identical  in  conception  with  Guide's,  but  totally 
different  in  treatment.  His  most  extensive  composition  is 
the  "  Resurrection  of  St.  Petronilla,"  in  the  Capitol,  Rome ; 
but  his  most  attractive  picture  is  the  lovely  "  Samian  Sibyl," 
in  the  tribune  of  the  Uffizi,  Florence.  The  Pitti  Gallery  pos- 
sesses his  "  St.  Sebastian,"  and  "  Heads  of  Moses  and  St. 


LA  TER  ITALIAN  PAINTING. 

241 

Peter."  "  Abraham  and  Hagar,"  one  of  his  masterpieces,  is 
in  the  Brera,  Milan ;  while  a  number  of  others  are  the  prop- 
erty of  the  Louvre  and  of  the  Dresden  Gallery.  Bologna  has 
of  course  reserved  some  good  specimens  for  her  Academy. 
Guercino  lived  to  reach  the  age  of  seventy-six,  and  died 
while  occupied  in  painting. 

The  name  of  Giovanni  Lanfranco,  of  Parma  (1581-1647), 
may  close  the  catalogue  of  able  Eclectic  masters.  Those  who 
succeeded  him  fell  into  insipidity,  affectation,  and  manner- 
ism, with  but  few  redeeming  qualities.  Even  Lanfranco  can- 
not be  regarded  as  a  distinguished  artist ;  yet  he  possessed  a 
certain  boldness  and  dexterity  which  pleased  his  contem- 
poraries. He  was  fond  of  executing  colossal  frescoes,  such  as 
the  "  Glory  of  Paradise,"  in  the  cupola  of  San  Andrea  della 
Vale,  Rome.  His  easel-pictures  are  of  little  importance,  but 
his  merits  were  over-estimated  at  Rome,  where  he  was 
knighted  by  Pope  Urban  VIII. 

In  the  preceding  pages  we  have  alluded  to  Caravaggio  in 
opposition  to  the  Carracci.  This  fiery,  impetuous  man,  Mi- 
chael Angelo  Amerighi  da  Caravaggio  (1569-1609),  so  called 
from  his  birthplace,  stood  for  many  years  at  the  head  of  the 
party  of  the  Naturalisti,  and  ruled  for  a  while  the  taste  of  the 
period,  both  at  Rome  and  Naples.  It  is  difficult  for  us  to 
realize  what  qualities  could  have  recommended  him  to  popu- 
larity, for  his  pictures  appear  to  us  repulsive ;  yet  they  are 
characterized  by  dark  and  wild  passion  and  tragical  vulgarity, 
which  threw  the  multitude  under  a  spell  of  fascination.  The 
"  Nature  "  which  he  studied  and  painted  was  coarse,  brutal, 
and  low.  Its  scenes  were  rough  and  dreary  landscapes,  fierce 
camps,  or  rude  drinking-houses ;  its  heroes  assassins,  Gypsies, 


242  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

lawless  soldiery,  and  most  profane  saints ;  its  method  broad 
masses  of  glaring  light  in  juxtaposition  with  deepest  black- 
ness of  gloom ;  a  sort  of  savage  poetry  of  grouping ;  excep- 
tionally vivid  gleams  of  crimson  color,  and  grandly-flowing 
draperies.  His  "  Christ  crowned  with  Thorns,"  at  Munich, 
and  his  "  Holy  Family  "  of  the  Borghese  Palace,  may  be  taken 
as  illustrations,  as  may  also  his  "  Entombment "  at  the  Vati- 
can, where  the  Virgin  has  been  likened  to  the  weird  mother 
of  a  Gypsy  chief. 

In  compositions  which  pretend  to  nothing  more  than 
striking  tableaux  from  low  life  he  is  not  so  disagreeable.  The 
"  Gamblers,"  at  the  Sciarra  Palace,  Rome ;  the  "  Fortune- 
Teller,"  at  the  Capitol ;  a  horrible  "  Medusa-Head,"  in  the 
Uffizi ;  the  "  Young  Girl  playing  on  the  Lute,"  at  Vienna ;  and 
the  "  Card-Players, "  at  Dresden,  are  all  forcible  productions. 
But  Caravaggio  soon  abandoned  Rome,  to  seek  a  more  con- 
genial home  in  Naples,  where  artists  lived  like  banditti,  and 
treated  their  rivals  to  poison  and  the  dagger.  The  disgrace- 
ful cabals  of  the  Neapolitan  painters  have  become  a  matter 
of  history.  Genius  could  not  flourish  in  such  a  soil,  and 


' 


none  of  these  passionate  partisans  deserve  a  biography  except 
"Lo  Spagnoletto,"  Ribera  the  Spaniard,  who,  though  Nea- 
politan by  residence,  will  properly  be  found  with  the  school 
of  Spain ;  and  his  pupil  Salvator  Rosa,  the  great  landscape- 
painter  of  the  South,  who  infused  the  poetry  of  his  own 
ardent  temperament  into  his  "savage  and  stormy  style," 
and  whose  battle  and  marine  pieces  are  as  yet  unequaled  in 
Italy. 

Salvator's    history    reads    like   a   romance.      Born    near 
Naples,  in   1615,  his  father's  early  death  left  him  a  whole 


LA  TER  ITALIAN  PAINTING. 

Z43 

family  to  support.  He  had  already  begun  to  paint,  but  his 
earnings  were  totally  inadequate  to  his  wants,  and  he  became 
frightfully  poor.  At  this  juncture  he  attracted  the  notice  of 
Lanfranco,  who  was  at  work  upon  the  dome  of  San  Januarius 
at  Naples,  and  who  advised  and  assisted  him  to  go  to  Rome. 
This  first  visit  to  Rome  was  cut  short  by  illness ;  but  he  had 
advanced  in  art,  and  subsequently,  returning  thither,  he  con- 
ceived the  plan  of  circulating  satires  against  Guido,  Domeni- 
chino,  Guercino,  Claude  Lorraine,  Poussin,  Rubens,  and  Van- 
dyck,  all  of  whom  were  existing  favorites.  It  was  the  time 
of  the  Carnival,  and  he  went  masked  through  the  streets, 
delivering  his  verses  and  witty  criticisms,  which  were  received 
with  much  applause  by  the  people,  and  created  a  sudden 
demand  for  his  pictures.  Thus  seizing  fame  he  grew  rich, 
and  might  have  long  enjoyed  luxury  and  comfort,  but  could 
not  resist  the  temptation  of  joining  the  Neapolitan  insurrec- 
tion under  Masaniello,  with  whom  he  fought  till  he  was 
obliged  to  flee  for  his  life.  His  last  years  were  spent  at 
Rome,  where  he  died  of  dropsy,  in  1673. 

His  landscapes  are  wild  and  grand,  with  rugged  rocks, 
lonely  wastes,  gloomy  forests,  and  dens  of  robbers.  We  may 
inspect  them  at  Madrid,  in  his  "St.  Jerome  in  the  Desert; " 
in  the  Louvre  and  at  Munich  and  Florence.  Fine  battle  and 
marine  views  are  in  the  Pitti  and  Corsini  Palaces,  Florence ; 
in  the  Corsini  and  Colonna  Galleries,  Rome,  and  in  the  Mu- 
seums of  the  Louvre  and  Berlin.  "  Mercury  and  the  Wood- 
man," with  other  unimportant  examples,  is  in  London.  The 
figures  and  portraits  of  Salvator  Rosa  were  in  the  same 
strong,  fantastic  style.  "  The  Conspiracy  of  Catiline,"  in  the 
Pitti,  a  fierce  group  in  half-length,  is  thought  his  masterpiece; 


244  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

"  Samuel's  Apparition  to  Saul,"  in  the  Louvre,  is  bold  and 
dark;  while  the  "  Man  in  Armor,"  in  the  Pitti,  and  "Warrior 
doing  Penance,"  at  Vienna,  would  do  credit  to  any  artist. 

Luca  Giordano  (1632-1705),  a  native  of  Naples,  but  court- 
painter  of  Spain,  is  classified  with  the  painters  of  that  coun- 
try, where  he  so  effectually  justified  his  sobriquet  of  "  Fa 
Presto,"  or  "Make  Haste,"  that  he  might  have  served  as 
decorator  of  the  palace  of  Aladdin. 

But  few  other  names  of  the  seventeenth  century  remain 
for  our  consideration.  The  Madonnas  of  Sassoferrato  which 
we  occasionally  meet,  especially  in  Roman  galleries,  are 
pretty  and  tender,  and  were  done  by  Giovanni  Battista  Salvi 
(1605-1685),  a  pupil  of  Domenichino,  born  at  Sassoferrato. 
His  Infant  Christs  are  usually  asleep  on  the  lap  of  the  Virgin. 

The  works  of  Carlo  Dolce  are  much  more  numerous  and 
popular.  He  dates  from  1616  to  1686,  and  lived  and  painted 
at  Florence.  His  pictures  are  smoothly  and  softly  finished  ; 
very  graceful,  very  beautiful,  though  sometimes  very  affected. 
Too  many  of  them  at  once  are  like  a  surfeit  of  sugar-candy ; 
but,  seen  singly,  they  generally  please.  The  best  are  the  "  St. 
Cecilia,"  and  "  Daughter  of  Herodias,"  at  Dresden ;  the  "  Ma- 
donna and  Child,"  in  the  Corsini  Palace,  Rome ;  the  "  Mater 
Dolorosa ;  "  and  the  "  Magdalene,"  and  "  Angel  of  the  An- 
nunciation," in  the  Uffizi.  Many  others  are  in  the  Pitti ;  but 
his  "  Martyrdom  of  St.  Andrew  "  in  that  gallery,  one  of  his 
ambitious  efforts,  is  weak  and  exaggerated  in  expression. 
His  "  Poesy  "  and  "  Speranza,"  so  common  in  photographs, 
have  their  originals  in  the  Corsini  collection,  Florence.  He 
seldom  designed  any  thing  more  than  heads,  or  single  figures 
reaching  down  to  the  knees.  Poverty  never  quenched  his 


MADONNA  AND  CHILD  (Carlo  Dolce). 


LATER  ITALIAN  PAINTING. 

245 

sentimentality,  of  which  significant  instances  might  be  quoted, 
such  as  his  transformation  from  a  bridegroom  into  a  devotee, 
when,  at  the  hour  appointed  for  his  wedding,  he  was  found 
missing,  and  after  anxious  search  was  discovered  prostrate 
before  a  crucifix.  His  daugher  Agnese  copied  her  father's 
paintings,  but  possessed  little  original  talent. 

Carlo  Maratta,  or  Maratti,  "the  last  of  the  Romans" 
(1625-1713),  is  of  the  same  general  type,  but  was  more  pros- 
perous in  his  fortunes,  though  of  less  repute  in  our  day.  The 
presidency  of  the  Academy  of  St.  Luke,  and  many  profitable 
orders,  were  given  him  in  Rome.  Successive  popes  bestowed 
on  him  their  patronage,  and  his  Madonnas  and  Holy  Families 
were  eagerly  purchased.  His  master,  Andrea  Sacchi  (1598- 
1661),  is  chiefly  known  by  a  picture  in  the  Vatican  of  St. 
Romualdo  "  relating  a  vision  to  five  brother  monks  all  clothed 
in  white  ;  "  but  Sacchi  was  proud  of  his  pupil,  and  procured 
him  a  commission  for  a  fresco  of  "  Constantine  destroying  the 
Idols,"  in  the  baptistery  of  St.  John  Lateran.  His  noblest 
work  is  the  "  Baptism  of  Christ,"  in  the  Roman  church  of 
Santa  Maria  degli  Angeli,  an  altar-piece  copied  in  mosaic 
for  the  baptismal  chapel  of  St.  Peter's. 

Both  Maratta  and  Salvator  Rosa  are  buried  in  Santa 
Maria  degli  Angeli ;  and  the  same  church  contains  paintings 
of  "  Mary's  First  Visit  to  the  Temple,"  by  a  contemporary 
artist,  Gianfranco  Romanelli  (1600-1662),  also  in  mosaic,  at 
St.  Peter's,  and  a  "  Fall  of  Simon  Magus,"  by  Pompeo  Bat- 
toni,  of  Lucca  (1702-1787),  who  shares  with  Raphael  Mengs 
the  scanty  Italian  honors  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Bat- 
toni's  other  altar-pieces  at  Rome  are  inferior  to  his  "  Prodigal 
Son  "  at  Vienna,  and  to  his  charming  "  Magdalene  "  in  the 


246  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

Dresden  Gallery,  which  travelers  unskilled  in  criticism  often 
prefer  to  Correggio's. 

Thus  terminates  the  reign  of  painting  in  its  ancient  home. 
Modern  Italy  has  not  yet  conquered  fame ;  but  she  can  well 
afford  to  rest  upon  her  old  laurels.  It  will  be  now  our  task 
to  trace  the  progress  of  culture  among  the  nations  of  the 
North. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

EARLY    GERMAN    AND    FLEMISH    PAINTING. 

THE  history  of  art  in  Germany  develops  itself  in  its  ear- 
liest growth  rather  through  the  medium  of  architecture  than 
painting.  The  barbarians  of  middle  Europe,  not  so  soon 
Christianized  as  civilized  Rome,  less  sensitive  to  beauty, 
and  nurtured  under  colder  skies,  amid  the  gloom  and  grand- 
eur of  primeval  forests,  found  their  first  religious  expression 
in  the  grave,  aspiring  lines  of  Gothic  architecture,  and  in  the 
sculpture  necessary  to  ornament  its  columns  and  portals. 
Artists  of  the  Byzantine  period  did,  it  is  true,  occasionally 
migrate  into  Germany,  but  found  it  an  uncongenial  home, 
and  have  left  very  poor  remains.  A  few  faded  paintings, 
attributed  to  their  pupils,  have  been  found  in  the  cathedrals 
of  Worms  and  Bamberg,  and  doubtless  others  exist  else- 
where, hidden  under  modern  plaster,  but  they  are  feeble  and 
insignificant. 

Of  the  MSS.  preceding  the  twelfth  century  we  have  al- 
ready spoken  in  the  chapter  on  miniature-painting.  The 
Royal  Library  at  Munich  contains  many  which  will  interest 
the  student.  Painting  on  glass,  also,  a  distinct  and  beautiful 
branch  of  art,  was  practised  in  France  and  Germany  in  the 
eleventh,  twelfth,  and  thirteenth  centuries,  springing,  like 


248  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

sculpture,  from  the  architectural  requirements  of  the  Gothic 
style.  Exquisite  specimens  may  still  be  seen  in  Cologne  and 
Strasburg  and  other  venerable  cathedrals.  In  such  cathe- 
drals fresco-painting  was  not  needed,  and  therefore  not  culti- 
vated. Even  the  altar-pieces  were  at  first  of  carved  wood  or 
stone,  gorgeously  decorated  with  color  and  gilding.  Kugler 
mentions,  as  among  the  most  ancient  examples  of  painting 
found  in  any  German  church,  some  stone  slabs  in  the  church 
of  St.  Ursula,  Cologne,  covered  with  figures  of  the  apostles, 
and  marked  1224.  But  Lubke  speaks  of  still  earlier  wall-dis- 
tempers of  1151,  in  the  lower  church  of  Schwarz-Rheindorf, 
near  Bonn,  where  outline  sketches  are  simply  laid  in  green  on 
a  dark-blue  ground. 

To  the  Emperor  Charles  IV.,  who  reigned  in  1348,  prob- 
ably belongs  the  honor  of  having  established  in  Bohemia  the 
first  organized  school  of  German  painting.  It  never  attained 
any  particular  distinction,  having  sunk  into  mediocrity  after 
the  death  ofthe  emperor,  and  is  mentioned  only  for  its  priority 
in  point  of  time.  Its  most  efficient  artist  seems  to  have  been 
an  Italian,  Thomas  of  Modena,  and  its  worthiest  efforts  are 
the  wall-paintings  of  the  palace  of  Karlstein,  near  Prague, 
and  of  the  cathedral  of  that  city.  A  large  mosaic  on  the  out- 
side of  the  Prague  Cathedral,  executed  by  order  of  Charles 
IV.,  representing  six  of  the  saints  of  Bohemia  kneeling  below 
our  Saviour,  is  remarkable  as  being  one  of  the  very  few  relics 
of  mosaic  art  in  Germany. 

Of  much  greater  importance  was  the  school  of  Cologne, 
in  regard  to  whose  origin  history  has  as  yet  been  silent.  A 
romance  of  the  year  1200  has  been  consulted,  in  which  the 
writer  alludes  to  the  painters  of  Cologne  and  Maastricht  as 


EARLY  GERMAN  AND  FLEMISH  PAINTING 

2  49 

the  best  in  Germnny.  This  little  mention,  however,  is  their 
only  fame ;  and  "  Meister  Wilhelm,"  of  whom  accounts  are 
uncertain,  but  who,  as  all  agree,  appeared  about  1358,  and 
was  settled  at  Cologne  between  1370  and  1380,  is  now  re- 
garded as  the  practical  founder  of  the  school.  There  are 
'  much  naiveti  and  sweetness  in  these  early  German  works ; 
a  childlike  tenderness  of  religious  feeling,  and  delicate  finish, 
with  the  clear,  melting  tone  of  color  so  natural  to  spirituality 
of  thought.  Not  much  remains  to  us  of  the  labors  of  Meis-. 
ter  Wilhelm.  Some  fragments  of  his  frescoes  are  dimly  visi- 
ble in  the  town-hall  of  the  city,  and  a  few  panel-pictures, 
usually  Madonnas,  exist  in  the  Cologne,  Munich,  and  Berlin 
Museums,  or  in  private  galleries.  One  of  these,  a  graceful, 
dove-eyed,  but  thoroughly  German  Virgin,  with  a  sweet-faced 
Child,  is  among  the  late  publications  of  the  Arundel  Society, 
and  deserves  careful  examination.  His  figures  are  always 
slender,  his  female  heads  pure  and  refined,  his  coloring  rich, 
and  his  conception  simple.  His  pupil  Meister  Stephan 
Lochner,  or  Loethener,  born  in  Constance,  but  resident  at 
Cologne  in  1442,  attained  a  higher  celebrity.  His  master- 
piece is  the  great  "  Dombild  "  or  Triptych,  in  the  Cologne 
Cathedral,  representing  the  Adoration  of  the  Magi  before  a/i 
Enthroned  Virgin.  On  the  wings  are  the  patrons  of  the 
city,  St.  Gereon  and  St.  Ursula,  with  their  knights  and  vir- 
gins. Albrecht  Durer,  in  the  record  of  one  of  his  journeys, 
mentions  having  paid  two  silver  pennies  for  a  sight  of  this 
altar-piece.  It  is  now  excellently  engraved. 

The  style  of  Meister  Stephan  resembles  that  of  Meister 
Wilhelm,  soft  in  execution,  light  in  color,  and  pure  in  expres- 
sion, but  with  shorter  and  stouter  figures.  Interesting  collec- 


25o  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

tions  of  his  paintings  and  those  of  his  followers  are  to  be  in- 
spected at  the  Cologne  Museum  and  the  Munich  Pinakothek. 
They  exhibit  the  same  characteristics,  innocent  and  gentle 
faces,  with  long,  flowing  hair ;  religious  earnestness  and  mild- 
ness ;  abundant  sentiment,  but  not  much  vigor ;  and  a  great 
deal  of  blue  and  red  in  the  draperies,  which  are  less  stiff  than 
is  common  among  antique  pictures.  This  school  did  not  sur- 
vive beyond  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  but  merged  its 
.individuality  into  that  of  the  Netherlands.  Its  expiring  gen- 
ius shone  out  in  an  admirable  work  in  eight  compartments, 
representing  the  "Last  Scenes  in  the  Life  of  Christ."  This 
was  formerly  ascribed  to  one  Israel  von  Mekenen,  but  its 
unknown  author  now  receives  the  title  of  the  "  Master  of  the 
Lyversberg  Passion."  The  picture  is  preserved  in  the  Mu- 
seum at  Cologne,  and  other  panels  from  his  hand  are  shown 
at  Munich  and  in  London. 

Nuremberg  has  also  her  relics  of  the  infancy  of  German 
art,  though  principally  in  the  departments  of  sculpture  and 
carving.  Some  old  pictures,  however,  remain  in  the  city  col- 
lections and  churches,  especially  the  Imhoff  altar-piece  of  the 
"  Coronation  of  the  Virgin,"  in  St.  Lorenz,  which  Lubke  be- 
lieves dates  about  1361.  Yet  no  very  authentic  notices  of 
the  Nuremberg  masters  have  descended  to  us  till  the  time 
of  Michael  Wohlgemuth,  the  teacher  of  Albrecht  Diirer,  of 
whom  we  shall  hereafter  speak. 

The  popular  interest  in  German  painting  usually  centres 
in  the  school  of  Flanders,  of  which  Hubert  and  Jan  van 
Eyck  are  the  leaders.  Flanders,  with  its  prosperous  com- 
mercial cities,  became,  in  the  fourteenth,  fifteenth,  and  six- 
teenth centuries,  almost  as  renowned  as  the  Italian  provinces. 


EARLY  GERMAN  AND  FLEMISH  PAINTING.      «, 

Its  art  was  stimulated  by  wealth  rather  than  devotion ;  for, 
though  individual  artists  were  often  deeply  pious,  no  monks 
put  on  canvas  their  saintly  ideals  or  records  of  mystic  visions, 
but  rich  churches  and  burghers  gave  large  commissions  for 
the  adornment  of  their  cathedrals  and  council-rooms;  and 
the  trade  in  pictures  became  a  lucrative  branch  of  business 
between  the  Flemish  seaports  and  Italy,  France,  and  Spain. 
Guilds  were  formed  about  1350,  and  were  liberally  patronized. 
Yet  previous*  to  the  labors  of  the  Van  Eycks  our  researches 
are  principally  confined  to  the  illuminated  MSS.,  of  which 
many  rare  and  beautiful  specimens  are  cherished  in  French 
and  German  libraries.  Wall-distempers  of  the  fourteenth 
century  have  been  discovered  at  Li£ge  and  Ghent,  but  of 
their  authorship  we  are  ignorant.  Some  panels  in  the  Mu- 
seum at  Dijon  also  appear  to  have  originated  in  the  Nether- 
lands, but  it  is  only  with  the  reign  of  the  Dukes  of  Burgundy 
that  we  can  accurately  trace  the  rise  and  development  of 
Flemish  painting. 

The  Van  Eyck  family,  literally  a  family  of  painters,  had 
their  birthplace  in  the  small  town  of  Maaseyck  in  the  Lim- 
burg  province.  Two  brothers  and  a  sister,  Margaret,  de- 
voted themselves  to  art.  Hubert  was  born  about  1366,  and 
was  John's  senior  by  more  than  twenty  years.  We  cannot 
tell  how  or  where  they  were  educated.  Their  early  pictures 
are  lost,  and  their  early  history  is  involved  in  obscurity.  In 
1412  Hubert  is  reported  to  have  joined  the  Guild  of  St. 
Luke  at  Ghent.  He  died  in  that  city  in  1426,  and  is  buried 
in  the  church  of  St.  Bavon,  with  this  epitaph : 

"  Take  warning  from  me,  ye  who  walk  over  me.  I  was  as 
you  are,  but  am  now  buried  beneath  you.  Thus  it  appears 


252 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


that  neither  art  nor  medicine  availed  me.     Art,  honor,  wis- 
dom, power,  affluence,  are  spared  not  when  death  comes. 

"  I  was  called  Hubert  van  Eyck ;  I  am  now  food  for 
worms.  Formerly  known  and  highly  honored  in  painting, 
this  all  was  shortly  turned  to  nothing. 

"  It  was  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  1426,  on  the  i8th  day  of 
September,  that  I  rendered  up  my  soul  to  God  in  suffering. 
Pray  God  for  me,  ye  who  love  art,  that  I  may  attain  to  his 
sight.  Flee  sin ;  turn  to  the  best ;  for  ye  must  follow  me  at 
last." 

At  this  distance  of  time  we  cannot  point  out  any  pictures 
that  may  with  positive  reliability  be  ascribed  to  Hubert,  ex- 
cepting a  part  of  the  famous  "Adoration  of  the  Lamb." 
Old  panels  in  Continental  galleries  are  sometimes  attributed 
to  him,  such  as  the  "St.  Jerome  and  the  Lion  "  at  Naples, 
but  on  no  sufficient  authority.  He  was,  however,  the  instruct- 
or of  his  brother  John,  and  should  share  with  him  the  credit 
of  the  great  invention  of  oil-painting  which  will  always  hand 
down  the  name  of  Van  Eyck  to  posterity.  This  invention 
was  not  merely  mixing  colors  with  oil,  for  that  had  before 
been  done  on  different  occasions  and  in  different  places,  but 
also  the  mingling  of  oil  and  resin  so  as  to  produce  a  colorless 
varnish,  which  would  dry  without  exposure  to  the  sun.  Va- 
sari  relates  the  experiences  which  led  to  John  van  Eyck's 
discovery  :  "  Now  it  happened  after  a  time  that  after  having 
given  extreme  labor  to  the  completion  of  a  certain  picture, 
and  with  great  diligence  brought  it  to  a  successful  issue,  he 
gave  it  the  varnish,  and  set  it  to  dry  in  the  sun,  as  is  the  cus- 
tom. But,  whether  because  the  heat  was  too  violent,  or  that 
the  wood  was  badly  joined  and  insufficiently  seasoned,  the 


EARLY  GERMAN  AND  FLEMISH   PAINTING.      2** 

picture  gave  way  at  the  joinings,  opening  in  a  very  deplora- 
ble manner.  Therefore,  Giovanni,  perceiving  the  mischief 
done,  determined  to  proceed  in  such  a  manner  that  the  same 
thing  should  never  again  injure  his  work  ;  and,  as  he  was  no 
less  embarrassed  by  his  varnishes  than  by  the  process  of 
tempera-painting,  he  turned  his  thoughts  to  the  discovery  of 
some  sort  of  varnish  that  would  dry  in  the  shadow,  to  the 
end  that  he  need  not  expose  his  pictures  to  the  sun.  Accord- 
ingly, after  -having  made  many  experiments  on  substances 
pure  and  mixed,  he  finally  discovered  that  linseed-oil  and 
oil  of  nuts  dried  more  readily  than  any  others  of  all  that  he 
had  tried.  Having  boiled  these  oils,  therefore,  with  other 
mixtures,  he  thus  obtained  the  varnish  which  he,  or  rather  all 
the  painters  of  the  world,  had  so  long  desired.  He  made 
experiments  with  many  other  substances,  but  finally  decided 
that  mixing  the  colors  with  these  oils  gave  a  degree  of  firm- 
ness to  the  work,  which  not  only  secured  it  against  all  injury 
from  water  when  once  dried,  but  also  imparted  so  much  life 
to  the  colors  that  they  exhibited  a  sufficient  lustre  in  them- 
selves without  the  aid  of  varnish ;  and  what  appeared  to  him 
more  extraordinary  than  all  besides  was,  that  the  colors  thus 
treated  were  much  more  easily  blent  and  united  than  when  in 
tempera." 

After  the  death  of  his  brother,  John  appears  to  have  re- 
moved to  Bruges,  where  Philip  the  Good,  Duke  of  Burgundy 
and  Count  of  Flanders,  held  his  court.  He  entered  Philip's 
service,  and  in  1428  was  sent  with  the  royal  embassy  to  Port- 
ugal, to  paint  the  portrait  of  Isabel,  Philip's  destined  wife. 
The  duke  was  satisfied  with  both  picture  and  bride,  and  al- 
ways continued  his  princely  favors  to  the  painter,  even  con- 


254  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

descending,  some  years  later,  to  stand  godfather  to  his  infant 
daughter.  John  died  at  Bruges,  in  1440  or  1441,  and  was 
buried  in  the  church  of  St.  Donat,  where  yearly  masses  were 
celebrated  for  the  repose  of  his  soul  during  more  than  three 
centuries  afterward. 

In  his  style  of  painting  John  or  Jan  van  Eyck  combined 
all  the  best  qualities  ever  possessed  by  the  Flemish  school. 
With  deep  religious  feeling  he  united  the  most  exact  realism. 
The  faces,  scenes,  architecture,  and  familiar  surroundings 
of  his  own  time  are  everywhere  introduced  into  his  works ; 
yet  always  with  dignity  and  harmony.  His  draperies  are 
ornate ;  his  colors  are  most  rich  and  glowing,  having  endured 
in  perfect  freshness  for  four  hundred  years ;  his  perspective  is 
above  all  praise ;  and  he  may  really  be  called  the  father  of 
landscape-painting,  excelling  equally  in  foregrounds  and  dis- 
tances. His  finish  is  so  careful  and  brilliant  as  to  resemble 
enamel,  and  the  favorite  motto  which  marks  his  pictures  is 
the  modest  "  Als  ikh  kan"  "  As  I  can." 

His  masterpiece  is  the  "  Adoration  of  the  Lamb  " — a 
splendid  altar-piece,  painted  on  twelve  panels,  for  one  of  the 
chapels  of  the  cathedral  of  Ghent,  by  order  of  Jodocus  Vydt, 
an  old  and  wealthy  citizen.  It  was  commenced  by  Hubert, 
though  only  the  upper  part  is  thought  to  be  from  his  hand. 
Six  years  after  his  death  it  was  completed  by  John.  On  the 
frame  is  inscribed,  in  Latin,  "  Hubert  of  Eyck,  whom  no  one 
surpassed,  began  it.  John,  the  second  brother,  with  art  per- 
fected it,  at  the  prayer  of  Jodocus  Vydt.  This  verse  invites 
you  to  contemplate  what  was  done  on  the  6th  of  May,  1432." 

The  excellent  description  here  subjoined  is  from  Crowe 
and  Cavalcaselle ;  and  I  quote  it,  partly  for  its  beauty  and 


EARLY  GERMAN  AND  FLEMISH  PAINTING. 

0  0 

accuracy,  partly  because  everybody  should  be  familiar  with 
this  gem  of  Northern  painting,  but  more  especially  because 
the  picture  has  been  chromo-lithographed,  and  may  therefore 
be  easily  studied  at  leisure  by  all  who  wish  to  acquaint  them- 
selves with  Flemish  art : 

"  In  the  centre  of  this  altar-piece,  and  on  a  panel  which 
overtops  all  the  others,  the  noble  and  dignified  figure  of 
Christ  sits  enthroned  in  the  prime  of  manhood,  with  a  short 
black  beard,- a  broad  forehead,  and  black  eyes.  He  holds  in 
his  left  hand  a  sceptre  of  splendid  workmanship,  and  with 
two  fingers  of  his  right  he  gives  his  blessing  to  the  world. 
The  gorgeous  red  mantle  which  completely  enshrouds  his 
form  is  fastened  at  the  breast  by  a  large,  jeweled  brooch. 
The  feet  rest  on  a  golden  pedestal,  carpeted  with  black ;  and 
on  the  dark  ground,  which  is  cut  into  perspective  squares  by 
lines  of  gold,  lies  a  richly-jeweled,  open-worked  crown,  em- 
blematic of  martyrdom.  On  the  right  of  Christ  the  Virgin 
sits,  in  her  traditional  robe  of  blue ;  her  long  fair  hair,  bound 
to  the  forehead  by  a  diadem,  flowing  in  waves  down  her 
shoulders.  With  most  graceful  hands  she  holds  a  book,  and 
pensively  looks,  with  a  placid  and  untroubled  eye,  into  space. 
On  the  left  of  the  Saviour  St.  John  the  Baptist  rests,  long- 
haired and  bearded,  austere  in  expression,  splendid  in  form, 
and  covered  with  a  broad,  flowing  green  drapery.  At  his 
right  St.  Cecilia,  in  a  black  brocade,  plays  on  an  oaken  organ, 
supported  by  three  or  four  angels  with  viols  and  harps.  On 
the  left  of  the  Virgin  a  similar  but  less  beautiful  group  of 
singing  choristers  stand  in  front  of  an  oaken  desk,  the  fore- 
most of  them  dressed  in  rich  and  heavy  red  brocade. 

"  On  the  right  of  St.  Cecilia  once  stood  the  naked  figure 


256 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


of  Eve,  now  removed  to  the  Brussels  Museum ;  while  counter- 
part to  Eve,  and  on  the  left  side  of  the  picture,  was  Adam, 
equally  remarkable  for  correctness  of  proportion  and  natural 
realism. 

"  Christ,  by  his  position,  presides  over  the  sacrifice  of  the 
Lamb,  as  represented  in  the  lower  panels  of  the  shrine.  The 
scene  of  the  sacrifice  is  laid  in  a  landscape  formed  of  green 
hills,  receding  in  varied  and  pleasing  lines  from  the  fore- 
ground to  the  extreme  distance.  A  Flemish  city,  meant,  no 
doubt,  to  represent  Jerusalem,  is  visible  chiefly  in  the  back- 
ground to  the  right ;  but  churches  and  monasteries,  built  in 
the  style  of  the  early  edifices  of  the  Netherlands  and  Rhine 
country,  boldly  raise  their  domes  and  towers  above  every 
part  of  the  horizon,  and  are  sharply  defined  on  a  sky  of  pale 
gray,  gradually  merging  into  a  deeper  hue. 

"  In  the  very  centre  of  the  picture  a  square  altar  is  hung 
with  red  damask,  and  covered  with  a  white  cloth.  Here 
stands  a  lamb  from  whose  breast  a  stream  of  blood  issues 
into  a  crystal  glass.  Angels  kneel  round  the  altar,  many  of 
them  praying  with  joined  hands,  others  holding  aloft  the 
emblems  of  the  passion,  two  in  front  waving  censers.  From 
a  slight  depression  of  the  ground  to  the  right,  a  little  behind 
the  altar,  a  numerous  band  of  female*  saints  is  issuing,  all  in 
rich  and  varied  costumes,  fair  hair  floating  over  their  shoul- 
ders, and  palms  in  their  hands ;  foremost  may  be  noted  St. 
Barbara  with  the  tower,  and  St.  Agnes.  From  a  similar  open- 
ing on  the  left,  popes,  cardinals,  bishops,  monks,  and  minor 
clergy  advance,  some  holding  crosiers  and  crosses,  others 
palms.  In  the  centre  near  the  base  of  the  picture  a  small, 
octagonal  fountain  of  stone  projects  a  stream  into  a  rill  whose 


EARLY  GERMAN  AND  FLEMISH  PAINTING.       2^ 

pebbly  bottom  is  seen  through  the  pellucid  water.  Two  dis- 
tinct groups  are  in  adoration  on  each  side  of  the  fountain. 

"The  faithful,  who  have  thus  reached  the  scene  of  the 
sacrifice,  are  surrounded  by  a  perfect  wilderness  of  flowering 
shrubs,  lilies,  and  other  beautiful  plants,  and  remain  in  quiet 
contemplation  of  the  Lamb.  Numerous  worshipers  besides 
are  represented  on  the  wings  of  the  triptych.  On  the  right 
side  of  the  altar-piece  we  see  a  noble  band  of  ascetics,  dressed 
in  frock  and  cowl,  with  staves  and  rosaries,  moving  round 
the  base  of  a  rocky  bank.  Two  female  saints,  one  of  them 
the  Magdalene,  bring  up  the  rear.  In  the  next  panel  to  the 
right,  and  in  a  similar  landscape,  St.  Christopher,  pole  in 
hand,  overtops  the  host  of  his  companions,  pilgrims  with 
grim  and  solemn  faces. 

"  On  the  left  is  a  band  of  crusaders.  In  the  rear  of  them, 
and  in  the  last  panel  to  the  left,  Hubert  van  Eyck,  with  long 
brown  hair,  in  a  dark  cap,  the  fur  peak  of  which  is  turned  up, 
ambles  forward  on  a  white  pony.  He  is  dressed  in  blue 
velvet,  lined  with  gray  fur ;  his  saddle  has  long,  green  hous- 
ings. In  the  same  line  with  him  two  riders  are  mounted  on 
sorrel  nags,  and  next  them  again  a  man  in  a  black  turban 
and  dark-brown  dress  trimmed  with  fur>  whom  historians 
agree  in  calling  John  van  Eyck.  The  two  groups  proceed 
along  a  sandy  path,  on  each  side  of  which  the  view  extends 
to  a  rich  landscape,  with  towns  and  churches  in  the  distance 
on  one  hand,  and  a  beautiful  vista  of  blue  and  snow  moun- 
tains on  the  other.  White,  fleecy  clouds  float  in  the  sky. 
There  is  not  to  be  found  in  the  whole  Flemish  school  a 
single  panel  in  which  human  figures  are  grouped,  designed, 
or  painted,  with  so  much  perfection  as  in  this  of  the  Mystic 


258  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

Lamb.  Nor  is  it  possible  to  find  a  more  complete  or  better 
distributed  composition,  more  natural  attitudes,  or  more  dig- 
nified expression. 

"The  altar-piece,  when  closed,  has  not  the  absorbing 
interest  of  its  principal  scenes  when  open.  It  is  subdivided 
first  into  two  parts,  in  the  upper  portion  of  which  is  the  An- 
nunciation ;  in  the  lower  the  portraits  of  Jodocus  Vydt  and 
his  wife,  and  imitated  statues  of  St.  John  the  Baptist  and  St. 
John  the  Evangelist.  In  the  semicircular  projection  of  the 
upper  central  panel  are  the  Sibyls,  while  half-figures  of  Zach- 
ariah  and  Micah  are  placed  in  the  semicircles  above  the  an- 
nunciate Angel  and  Virgin." 

The  original  "  wings  "  of  the  painting,  with  the  exception 
of  "  Adam "  and  "  Eve,"  have  been  carried  to  the  Berlin 
Museum,  where  there  is  also  an  admirable  old  copy  of  the 
central  part  of  the  piece. 

Among  the  remaining  works  of  John  van  Eyck  is  a  re- 
markable altar-piece,  called  the  "Fount  of  Salvation/'  bear- 
ing a  resemblance  to  the  Ghent  "Adoration,"  in  the  Santa 
Trinitad  Museum  at  Madrid.  The  Academy  at  Bruges  pos- 
sesses, however,  more  accessible  specimens,  as  does  also  the 
National  Gallery,  London,  where  a  "  Turbaned  Portrait,"  and 
"  Jean  Arnolfini  and  Wife,  with  Joined  Hands,"  are  particu- 
larly valuable.  The  single  picture  owned  by  the  Louvre,  a 
"  Coronation  of  the  Virgin,"  or,  as  it  is  most  commonly  called, 
"The  Virgin  and  Donor,"  is  elaborately  beautiful,  and  no 
one  can  fail  to  notice  the  wonderful  detail  of  its  figures,  and 
the  perfect  perspective  of  its  background,  terminating  in  a 
far-off  line  of  snow-mountains.  At  Dresden  is  a  very  small 
"  Madonna  and  Child,"  so  exquisite  in  finish  that  it  might  be 


EARLY  GERMAN  AND  FLEMISH  PAINTING.        359 

scrutinized  with  a  microscope,  and  treasured  like  a  miniature 
Six  others  are  catalogued  as  Van  Eycks  in  the  royal  collec- 
tion at  Munich,  but  their  genuineness  has  been  questioned. 
The  Hermitage  at  St.  Petersburg  has  secured  an  "  Annun- 
ciation," while  Berlin  has  a  "  Head  of  Christ,"  and  Vienna 
some  good  portraits. 

Of  the  life  of  Margaret  van  Eyck  little  is  definitely 
known.  It  is  said  that  her  passion  for  art  was  so  sincere 
that  she  always  lived  unmarried ;  but  her  handiwork  has  al- 
most entirely  passed  into  oblivion.  A  "  Madonna  and  Child  " 
is  ascribed  to  her  in  the  Gallery  at  London,  and  a  "  Repose 
in  Egypt  "  in  the  Museum  at  Antwerp.  She  also  seems  to 
have  been  successful  as  a  miniaturist.  The  name  of  a  third 
brother,  Lambert,  has  lately  been  discovered  in  the  family 
records,  but  tradition  tells  us  nothing  of  his  history,  except 
that  he  was  probably  a  painter,  and  may  have  assisted  his 
brother,  or  copied  his  works. 

As  might  be  anticipated,  not  only  from  their  individual 
abilities,  but  from  the  great  enthusiasm  everywhere  aroused 
by  the  discovery  and  practice  of  oil-painting,  the  Van  Eyck 
studios  were  crowded  with  pupils.  These  Flemish  artists,  in 
their  different  degrees  of  excellence,  shared  the  same  spirit. 
All  were  religious,  earnest,  and  rather  melancholy  in  feeling 
— but  none  had  overcome  a  certain  rigidity  of  movement  and 
uniformity  of  expression.  Their  saints  are  Dutch  in  placid- 
ity, or  Dutch  in  gloom.  Their  Infant  Saviours  are  large- 
headed  and  meagre ;  their  Virgins  may  be  lacking  in  beauty, 
but  are  always  finely  dressed;  their  angels  shine  in  purple 
raiment  and  peacocks'  wings;  and  their  main  idea  of  the 
glory  of'God  is  invariably  associated  with  gold  and  gorgeous- 


260  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

ness,  and  glittering  array — contrasted  strangely  with  the  per- 
fectly natural,  realistic,  and  incongruous  details  painted  with 
unflinching  fidelity  from  every-day  life.  Justus  of  Ghent, 
Hugo  van  der  Goes,  Petrus  Christus,  and  Gerard  van  der 
Meire,  may  be  mentioned  as  among  John  van  Eyck's  fol- 
lowers; but  his  best-known  and  most  able  successor  was 
undoubtedly  Roger  van  der  Weyden,  often  spoken  of  as  Roger 
of  Bruges. 

Much  confusion  has  existed  among  writers  in  their  ac- 
counts of  this  artist,  who  was  once  reckoned  among  the 
pupils  of  Van  Eyck.  Later  authorities  have  asserted  that 
the  development  of  his  genius  owed  little  to  the  influence  of 
that  master,  as  he  was  born  in  1400,  at  Tournai,  in  the  west 
of  Flanders,  and  educated  in  the  same  city.  His  reputation 
soon  became  extended,  and  in  1436  he  was  appointed  painter 
in  ordinary  to  the  city  of  Brussels.  The  contrast  of  his  style 
may  be  thus  noticed  :  "  The  Van  Eycks  illustrate  the  splen- 
dor of  the  Church  militant,  or  they  fondly  depict  the  joys  of 
the  Virgin,  the  smiles  of  the  Infant  Christ,  or  the  serene  pen- 
siveness  of  saints.  Van  der  Weyden  likes  to  dwell  on  the 
sombre  aspects  of  sacred  history;  he  prefers  the  pages  in 
which  we  read  of  the  agony  and  pains  of  the  Saviour  and 
the  martyrs."  This  grave  and  austere  treatment  he  pre- 
served even  after  a  journey  to  Italy,  where  he  was  received 
with  much  consideration,  and  where  he  nas  left  some  few 
pictures  in  his  usual  realistic  manner,  especially  a  little  panel 
in  the  Ufifizi,  representing  his  favorite  subject,  called  by  the 
Flemings  "  ung  Dieu  de  pitti"  and  by  the  Italians  a  Pieta. 
Some  critics  suppose  that  it  was  he,  and  not  Antonella  da 
Messina,  who  introduced  oil-painting  into  Venice,  but  this 
is  unlikely. 


EARLY  GERMAN  AND  FLEMISH  PAINTING.       26l 

In  the  hospital  at  Beaume,  in  Burgundy,  may  still  be  seen 
Van  der  Weyden's  most  important  work,  dating  about  1447, 
an  altar-piece  of  the  "  Last  Judgment,"  the  largest  produc- 
tion of  the  early  Flemish  school.  Smaller  triptychs  are  pre- 
served in  the  Berlin  Museum,  in  heavy  architectural  frames, 
especially  one  of  the  "  Nativity,"  known  as  the  "  Middleburg 
Altar-piece."  Several  pleasing  pictures,  including  "St.  Luke 
painting  the  Virgin,"  and  an  "Adoration  of  the  Kings,"  are 
found  in  the  Munich  Gallery,  while  at  the  Staedel  Museum, 
Frankfort,  is  a  "  Madonna  and  Child,"  where  two  of  the  at- 
tending saints  are  portraits  of  the  children  of  the  Florentine 
Duke  Cosmo  de  Medici,  at  whose  order  it  was  painted. 

Van  der  Weyden  died  at  Brussels,  June  16,  1464.  He 
was  buried  "under  a  blue  stone,"  before  the  altar  of  St. 
Catharine,  in  the  church  of  St.  Gudule. 

The  name  of  another  Roger  van  der  Weyden,  termed  the 
younger,  is  frequently  met  with  in  chronicles  and  catalogues ; 
but  it  is  now  inferred  that  the  pictures  so  attributed  are  not 
the  work  of  any  one  person  in  particular,  but  may  be  assigned 
to  various  obscure  artists  of  that  period. 

In  the  latter  half  of  the  fifteenth  century  also  flourished 
the  weird  Jerome  Bosch,  who  reveled  in  depicting  ghosts, 
incantation  scenes,  and  the  infernal  regions.  Many  of  his 
fantastic  compositions  were  purchased  in  Spain. 

A  pupil  of  the  elder  Van  der  Weyden,  Hans  Memling, 
sometimes  erroneously  written  Hemling,  divides  with  Van 
Eyck  the  laurels  of  Flemish  art.  More  poetic,  though  less 
powerful,  than  the  early  master,  he  has  left  behind  a  greater 
number  of  works.  The  city  of  Bruges,  near  which  he  was 
probably  born,  about  the  year  1425,  has  many  romantic  sto- 


262  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

ties  to  tell  of  his  career ;  but,  as  nearly  as  one  can  ascertain 
the  facts,  it  seems  that  he  was  a  simple  citizen  who,  in  the 
intervals  of  much  traveling,  resided  at  that  place  in  a  house 
whose  site  has  recently  been  discovered ;  and  eventually  died, 
in  1495. 

In  his  youth  he  was  a  miniaturist,  and  worked  with  infi- 
nite skill  upon  the  pages  of  the  Grimani  Breviary,  now  splen- 
didly preserved  in  the  Library  of  St.  Mark,  Venice.  Of 
more  general  interest,  however,  are  his  two  early  works  of 
the  "  Seven  Joys  "  and  the  "  Seven  Griefs  of  Mary,"  at  Mu- 
nich and  Turin.  The  "Seven  Joys  "  is  an  originally-man- 
aged picture,  but  at  first  sight  so  confused  and  so  crowded  as 
to  need  a  close  examination  in  order  to  appreciate  its  perfec- 
tion of  detail.  "  The  scene  is  an  immense  bird's-eye  land- 
scape, extending  over  city,  sea,  and  mountain,  embracing 
Egypt,  Bethlehem,  Jerusalem,  Emmaus,  Nazareth,  the  Sea  of 
Galilee,  and  Chaldea,  in  glorious  disdain  of  geography ;  and 
traversed  in  every  direction  by  innumerable  winding  roads, 
wiling  the  eye  onward,  and  enhancing  the  idea  of  illimitable 
distance.  The  whole  of  this  vast  space  is  filled  with  de- 
tached groups  of  small  figures  representing  the  successive 
incidents  of  happiness  in  the  life  of  the  Virgin." 

But  it  is  at  Bruges  that  we  meet  Memling  in  his  glory. 
All  travelers  to  that  ancient  city  are  proudly  conducted  to 
the  Hospital  of  St.  John,  adorned  by  his  masterpieces.  The 
possession  of  these  by  such  an  institution  is  accounted  for  by 
the  legend  that  he  came  to  Bruges,  a  wounded  soldier  in 
1477,  after  the  battle  of  Nancy,  was  nursed  in  the  Johannis 
Hospital,  and  there  remained  some  time,  presenting  these 
treasures,  after  his  recovery,  as  a  tribute  of  Jiis  gratitude.  It 


ST.  VERONICA  (Memling). 


p.  afa. 


EARLY  GERMAN  AND  FLEMISH  PAINTING.       26* 

is  a  story  which  does  credit  both  to  the  good  brothers  and  to 
If  ending  himself  but  it  is  unfortunately  thought  to  be  with- 
out foundation.  The  works,  however,  are  indisputably  there; 
and  none  can  refuse  admiration.  The  most  celebrated  is  the 
"  Shrine  of  St.  Ursula,"  a  gilded  chest,  only  four  feet  long, 
.shaped  like  a  Gothic  chapel,  and  covered  all  over  the  lid 
and  sides  with  wonderful  paintings  scarcely  larger  than  min- 
iatures, but  more  exquisite  than  any  miniature  in  the  beauty 
and  precision  of  their  finish.  They  illustrate  the  popular 
legend  of  St.  Ursula,  the  Princess  of  Brittany,  who,  with 
eleven  thousand  virgins,  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome,  re- 
ceived the  blessing  of  the  pope,  and,  on  their  return  to  Ger- 
many, were  martyred  by  the  Huns,  just  outside  the  gates  of 
Cologne.  On  one  of  the  ends  of  the  reliquary  stands  the 
Madonna,  on  the  other  St.  Ursula  with  her  maidens  under 
her  mantle ;  while  the  six  compartments  of  the  side  depict 
the  departure  of  the  company,  the  landing  at  Basle,  the  arri- 
val in  Rome,  the  journey  home,  the  beginning  of  the  martyr- 
dom, and  the  death  of  the  saint.  These  little  compartments 
not  only  contain  about  two  hundred  figures,  but  also  very 
faithful  views  of  the  churches  of  Cologne  and  of  Rhine 
scenery.  The  shrine  is  said  to  have  been  completed  in  1486. 
Equally  lovely  is  the  "  Marriage  of  Saint  Catharine,"  an- 
other gem  of  the  hospital  The  Virgin  and  Child,  with 
hovering  angels,  are  enthroned  in  the  centre;  St.  Catharine 
and  St.  Barbara  below.  Minute  landscape  occupies  the  back- 
ground. On  one  hand  is  represented  the  death  of  St.  John 
Baptist,  and  on  the  other  the  vision  of  St,  John  the  Evange- 
list, with  all  the  solemn  scenery  of  the  Apocalypse ;  the  whole 

in  a  triptych  not  more  than  half  life-size. 
18 


264  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

Still  more  of  Memling's  pictures  are  shown  in  this  same 
building ;  the  next  most  attractive  being  an  altar-piece  of  the 
"  Adoration  of  the  Magi,"  and  the  "  Sibyl  Zambeth."  In  the 
Bruges  Academy  is  a  fine  "Baptism  of  Christ."  At  Munich, 
not  only  the  "Seven  Joys,"  but  "St.  John  Baptist,"  "St. 
Christopher,"  and  an  "Adoration  of  the  Kings,"  continue  his 
renown.  The  Louvre  has  a  diptych  of  "  St.  John  Baptist 
and  the  Magdalene,"  while  London,  Antwerp,  Berlin,  and 
most  Continental  museums,  have  added  his  name  to  their 
collections.  His  largest  works  are  the  "Last  Judgment,"  of 
the  Dantzic  Cathedral,  the  most  majestic  example  of  the 
Flemish  treatment  of  this  subject ;  and  an  altar-piece  of  the 
"  Passion,"  in  a  chapel  of  the  cathedral  of  Liibeck,  which 
unfolds,  "  in  about  twenty  groups  dispersed  through  an  im- 
mense landscape,  the  whole  history  of  the  Passion  and  the 
Forty  Days,  from  the  Agony  in  the  Garden  to  the  Ascen- 
sion." 

Memling's  superiority  lies  in  the  infusion  of  the  poetry  of 
his  own  nature  into  the  accurate  realism  which  marked  the 
art  of  Flanders.  This  it  is  which  gives  the  charm  to  his 
marvelous  finish,  and  blends  the  grace  of  the  ideal  with  the 
details  of  the  real.  Schlegel  writes  of  him  :  "  He  has  all  the 
pathos  and  German  feeling  of  Diirer,  without  his  caricature 
or  other  peculiarities.  In  spiritual  beauty  and  devotional 
feeling,  as  well  as  in  clearness  of  meaning,  he  exceeds  all 
painters  of  the  school,  and  can  only  be  placed  on  a  level  with 
Van  Eyck."  Viardot  speaks  even  more  enthusiastically  of 
his  "  pictures  of  sacred  history,  conceived  in  the  highest  style 
of  Fra  Angelico,  and  painted  in  the  finest  execution  of  Ge- 
rard Dow."  If  we  cannot  quite  agree  in  the  justice  of  this 


EARLY  GERMAN  AND  FLEMISH  PAINTING.       ^ 

comparison  with  Fra  Angelico,  we  at  least  need  not  fear  of 
giving  too  high  praise  to  his  technical  execution.  The  deli- 
cacy of  his  touch  has  never  been  surpassed ;  his  colors  are 
bright  and  soft,  his  landscapes  glowing,  his  draperies  elegant, 
and  his  female  faces  innocently  tender  and  winning,  though 
of  course  adhering  to  the  Teutonic  type,  with  broad,  un- 
covered foreheads,  faintly-marked  eyebrows,  drooping  lids, 
and  long,  golden  hair. 

No  subsequent  master  has  been  able  to  approach  his 
genius ;  and  from  the  time  of  Memling  till  that  of  Rubens 
Flemish  painting  furnished  no  shining  lights.  The  fame  of 
Raphael  and  his  colleagues  led  many  lesser  artists  to  journey 
into  Italy,  where  they  attempted  to  combine  Italian  sentiment 
with  the  manner  of  the  Netherlands.  The  result  was  disas- 
trous to  both  styles. 

Jan  Gossaert,  or  Mabuse,  so  named  from  Mauberge,  his 
native  place,  was  the  first  to  inaugurate  such  a  movement. 
He  prided  himself  upon  having  two  methods,  in  one  of  which 
he  imitated  Memling,  in  the  other  Michael  Angelo.  In  his 
youth  he  worked  with  true  Flemish  industry ;  and  as  he  pos- 
sessed excellent  natural  abilities,  and  was  a  good  colorist,  he 
gave  promise*  of  a  prosperous  career.  It  was  long  supposed 
that  he  visited  England  previous  to  his  residence  in  Italy,  a"s 
there  exists  at  Hampton  Court  a  fine  picture  called  the 
"  Children  of  Henry  VII. ;  "  but  it  has  been  discovered  that 
they  are  in  reality  the  children  of  the  King  of  Denmark,  and 
that  Mabuse  was  probably  not  in  England  at  all.  Be  that  as 
it  may,  he  certainly  went  to  Rome  about  1513,  and  became 
devoted  to  the  nude  and  the  allegorical.  Neither  did  the 
tour  improve  his  morals,  for  he  obtained  upon  his  return  the 


266  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS   OF  PAINTING. 

reputation  of  a  spendthrift  and  a  debauchee,  and  after  an 
improvident  life  died  at  Antwerp,  in  1532. 

A  number  of  his  paintings,  in  his  peculiar  and  mingled 
style,  are  scattered  through  Brussels,  Berlin,  Munich,  and 
Antwerp.  The  more  Flemish  specimens  are  at  Antwerp,  es- 
pecially "The  Maries  coming  from  the  Tomb  of  Christ;" 
while  his  Italian  method  is  seen  to  best  advantage  in  his 
"  Danae  in  the  Golden  Shower,"  at  Munich.  When  one 
reads  that,  in  his  classical  efforts,  he  endeavored  to  unite  the 
muscles  of  Michael  Angelo  with  the  smile  of  Leonardo  da 
Vinci,  one  is  certainly  prepared  for  most  singular  effects. 

Bernard  van  Orley  and  Michael  Coxie  were  of  the  same 
period  and  the  same  stamp ;  Flemish  by  birth,  but  more  or 
less  Italianized  in  style,  and  with  few  remains  to  mark  their 
memory.  Coxie  traveled  to  Spain,  where  his  services  were 
much  valued.  In  Germany  he  is  best  known  as  the  author 
of  the  Berlin  copy  of  Van  Eyck's  "  Adoration  of  the  Lamb." 

The  rapidly  degenerating  school  of  Flanders  had,  how- 
ever, before  the  death  of  Mabuse,  been  linked  to  that  of  Ant- 
werp by  the  genius  of  Quintin  Messys  or  Matsys,  born  in 
Louvain,  about  1460.  According  to  some  writers,  he  was  a 
pupil  of  Van  der  Weyden,  from  whom  he  learned  the  manner 
tff  the  Van  Eycks,  afterward  greatly  modified  by  his  own 
originality.  But  love  proved  a  better  master  than  Van  der 
Weyden.  Tradition  records  that  he  was  brought  up  a  black- 
smith, but  became  deeply  attached  to  a  daughter  of  Franz 
Floris,  a  painter  of  Antwerp,  who  was  very  popular  in  his 
own  day,  but  whose  fame  did  not  "  survive  the  century." 
The  young  lady  objected  to  her  admirer's  profession,  and  he 
at  once  exchanged  the  hammer  for  the  brush ;  soon  achiev- 


EARLY  GERMAN  AND  FLEMISH  PAINTING. 


267 


ing  a  success  which  won  his  bride,  and  threw  his  father-in- 
law  into  the  shade.  A  Latin  inscription  to  his  memory  in  the 
cathedral  of  Antwerp  still  tells  us  that — 

"  'Twas  love  connubial  taught  the  smith  to  paint" 

Antwerp  knew  how  to  honor  such  talent,  and  has  retained  some 
of  his  finest  works,  particularly  his  altar-piece  of  the  "  En- 
tombment," now  hanging  in  the  gallery  of  that  city.  But  the 
talent  was  poorly  paid,  for  he  received  only  one  hundred  and 
twenty-five  dollars  for  this  large  and  very  powerful  picture. 
Another,  though  less  vigorous,  "  Descent  from  the  Cross  "  is 
in  the  Louvre,  as  well  as  a  "Banker  and  his  Wife,"  while  half- 
length  figures  of  the  "  Virgin  and  Child  "  are  found  in  sev- 
eral museums. 

His  reputation  in  our  present  generation  mainly  rests  on 
his  often-repeated  subject  of  "  The  Misers."  One  of  these  is 
at  Windsor  Castle.  It  represents  two  men  seated  at  a  table  : 
"  One,  who  counts  his  gold  and  sets  down  the  sum  in  his  note- 
book, appears  to  be  a  merchant ;  the  other,  who  familiarly 
lays  his  hand  on  his  shoulder,  and  looks  with  malicious  pleas- 
ure toward  the  spectator,  seems  to  have  just  succeeded  in  out- 
witting him."  The  surrounding  furniture,  the  inkstand  on 
the  table,  and  the  parrot  perched  above,  are  finished  with 
scrupulous  fidelity  and  masterly  skill. 

Quintin  Matsys  died  in  1531,  leaving  a  large  family. 
Some  of  his  sons  were  painters  and  copyists,  but  none  at- 
tained to  any  excellence. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

GERMAN    PAINTING    IN    THE   FIFTEENTH    AND    SIXTEENTH 
CENTURIES. 

TURNING  from  Flanders  to  Upper  and  Western  Germa- 
ny, we  discover  that  the  awakening  to  a  sense  of  beauty  or 
power,  which  is  a  nation's  first  basis  of  art,  was  later  and 
more  gradual  in  the  remoter  cities  of  the  North  than  in  the 
fertile  Netherlands.  Rumors  of  the  artists  of  Cologne  and 
Bruges  had  penetrated  into  the  provinces,  but  no  hearty  re- 
sponse was  given  till  the  genius  of  Albrecht  Durer  developed, 
at  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century,  an  entirely  distinct 
school  of  German  painting.  A  few  of  his  predecessors  had 
indeed  displayed  some  of  his  own  characteristics  at  a  little 
earlier  date ;  but  they  are  forgotten,  and  his  fame  survives. 
Martin  Schongauer  anticipated  him  as  an  engraver,  while 
Michael  Wohlgemuth  was  his  instructor  as  a  painter. 

Schongauer,  or  Martin  Schon,  born  about  1420,  and  dying 
in  1488,  was  a  native  of  Colrnar,  in  Franconia.  His  earliest 
work,  a  "  Death  of  the  Virgin,"  is  in  the  National  Gallery, 
London ;  his  best  is  an  altar-piece  at  Colmar,  of  the  "  Virgin 
and  Child  seated  beneath  a  Rose-hedge."  Some  of  his  pict- 
ures are  also  at  Munich  and  Vienna,  especially  a  "Cruci- 
fixion," where  blue  angels  hover  in  sorrow  round  the  cross. 


EARLY  GERMAN  PAINTING.  2g 

He  has,  too,  a  figure  of  "  St.  Agnes  with  her  Lamb,"  which  is 
unusually  beautiful ;  but  it  is  to  his  prints  we  must  look  for 
the  clearest  evidence  of  his  talents.  These  were  celebrated, 
and  gained  for  him  the  epithet  of  "  Schon"  or  "  beautiful,"  an 
adjective  by  no  means  applicable  to  his  personal  appearance, 
.  as  his  portrait  at  Munich  proves  that  he  was  far  from  hand- 
some. Yet  even  the  Italians  called  him  u Bel  Martino" 
His  engravings  were  imported  into  Italy,  and  a  "  Temptation 
of  St.  Anthony,"  treated  in  the  same  style  as  Teniers's  subse- 
quent paintings,  had  the  honor  of  being  admired  and  copied 
by  Michael  Angelo  in  his  youth.  A  collection  of  these  en- 
gravings may  be  found  in  the  British  Museum. 

The  school  of  Nuremberg,  or  Ntirnberg,  now  comes  prom- 
inently forward.  Sculpture  had  long  flourished  in  this  quaint 
city,  and  the  noble  carvings  and  statues  of  its  churches  and 
monuments  are  still  the  delight  of  travelers;  but  painting 
had  advanced  with  much  less  rapidity,  being  comparatively 
neglected,  and  partaking  more  or  less  of  the  stiffness  and 
sharpness  of  wooden  or  stone  figures.  Michael  Wohlgemuth, 
born  about  1434,  became  the  most  important  artist  of  the 
period,  and  has  been  correctly  said  to  stand  in  the  same 
relation  to  Albrecht  Diirer  as  Perugino  to  Raphael.  Yet  the 
realistic  spirit  of  Germany,  joined  to  the  fantastic  element  so 
blended  with  its  art  and  poetry  that  it  almost  seems  a  love  of 
weirdness  and  ugliness  for  its  own  sake,  effectually  distin- 
guishes both  teacher  and  pupil  from  the  great  masters  of 
Italy.  There  is  no  more  real  resemblance  between  Dlirer 
and  Raphael  than  between  a  ballad  of  Btirger  and  a  sonnet 
of  Petrarch,  while  one  would  smile  indeed  to  contrast  the 
altar-pieces  of  Perugino  and  Wohlgemuth.  In  fact,  the  altar- 


270 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


pieces  of  the  latter  are  little  calculated  to  raise  the  spectator's 
enthusiasm,  though  it  is  now  charitably  supposed  that  the 
worst  of  them  were  executed  by  his  numerous  apprentices, 
and  that  the  best,  which  exhibit  some  beautiful  and  well- 
colored  heads,  with  an  occasionally  tender  type  of  female 
sainthood,  are  all  that  can  be  positively  attributed  to  his  own 
hand.  Among  these,  the  large  picture  in  many  compartments, 
representing  *the  "  Life  and  Death  of  Christ,"  painted  for  the 
high-altar  of  St.  Mary's  Church,  Zwickau,  is  regarded  as  his 
masterpiece ;  though  some  prefer  the  "  St.  Jerome,"  at  Vienna. 
Several  more  are  in  the  Pinakothek,  Munich,  and  in  the 
churches  of  Nuremberg  and  Zwickau.  When  Wohlgemuth 
had  reached  the  age  of  eighty-three,  Diirer  painted  his  por- 
trait, now  in  the  Munich  Gallery — "a  pale  and  worn,  but 
noble,  artist-like  head,  very  German,  with  strong  under  jaw, 
Roman  nose,  and  keen  gray  eye  full  of  unquenched  fire,  a 
delicate  ear,  half  hid  under  the  tight  black  cap ;  every  vein 
and  wrinkle  is  given,  yet  with  a  freedom  and  -ease  that  admit 
of  nothing  painful  or  disagreeable." 

Albrecht  or  Albert  Diirer,  born  in  1471,  was  the  son  of  a 
goldsmith  of  Nuremberg,  in  whose  large  family  of  nineteen 
children  Albrecht  appears  as  the  only  genius.  Apprenticed 
at  first  to  his  father's  trade,  the  bent  of  his  genius  was  so 
decided  that  he  was  transferred  to  the  tuition  of  Michael 
Wohlgemuth,  and,  after  three  years'  study,  started  out  in 
1490  upon  the  delightful  Wanderjahre,  or  wandering  years  of 
travel,  so  congenial  to  every  young  German  heart.  No  ac- 
count of  these  years  can  be  discovered,  but  they  were  doubt- 
less far  more  of  an  education  than  the  limited  influences  of  a 
Nuremberg  studio.  Returning  in  1494,  he  married  in  a  few 


EARLY  GERMAN  PAINTING 

271 

months  the  pretty  but  shrewish  and  miserly  Agnes  Frey,  who 
proved  a  Northern  Xantippe,  and  embittered  all  his  days 
with  her  temper  and  her  tongue.  The  match  was  made  by 
the  respective  fathers,  but  speaks  little  for  the  sagacity  of  the 
artist's  family.  Diirer  was  eminently  uncomfortable  during 
his  wedded  life,  and  certainly  not  from  his  own  faults,  for  all 
contemporaries  grow  eloquent  in  praise  of  his  virtues.  He 
was,  we  are  told,  a  man  of  stately  figure  and  gentle  bearing, 
of  melodious  voice,  dignified  address,  and  cordial  benignity. 
Yet  his  wife  never  appreciated  the  matrimonial  prize  which 
had  fallen  to  her  share,  even  though  he  paid  her  the  compli- 
ment of  occasionally  painting  her  face  in  his  pictures,  and 
left  her  at  his  death  a  sum  of  several  thousand  florins. 

For  ten  years  after  his  marriage,  Diirer  remained  at  Nu- 
remberg, developing  with  peculiar  originality  the  qualities 
which  make  him  the  representative  German  painter.  Noth- 
ing in  his  surroundings  was  calculated  to  kindle  the  fire  of 
genius.  It  was  fed  from  his  own  spirit,  and  burned  with 
steady  yet  increasing  brightness.  His  earliest  known  works 
are  the  portraits  of  himself  and  his  father,  in  the  Uffizi, 
Florence,  and  also  at  Munich.  These  were  painted  between 
1497  and  1500.  His  own  likeness  is  very  interesting.  He 
looks  like  a  Christian  knight  as  he  stands,  in  half-length,  at  a 
window,  in  a  pointed  cap  and  brown  mantle,  his  hair  falling 
in  long  ringlets  around  a  grave  and  noble  face.  A  few  other 
portraits  were,  soon  after,  executed,  marked  either  with  his 
name  or  the  monogram  of  a  small  D  in  a  large  A ;  as  well  as  a 
series  of  remarkable  woodcuts  of  the  Apocalypse;  but  his 
labors  were  happily  interrupted  by  a  journey  to  the  north  of 
Italy  in  1505,  where,  judging  from  his  letters,  he  must  have 


272 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


found  the  most  unclouded  enjoyment,  heightened  by  warm 
appreciation  and  friendship.  The  visit  of  Albrecht  Diirer  to 
the  Venetian  studio  of  Gian  Bellini  is  a  subject  picturesquely 
rendered  by  artists  of  more  modern  date.  The  charm  of  his 
person  as  well  as  of  his  talents  strongly  attracted  the  sus- 
ceptible Italians,  and  their  admiration  of  his  engravings  and 
pictures  was  all  the  more  grateful  to  him  because  contrasted 
with  the  apathy  or  measured  praise  of  his  fellow-citizens. 
He  writes  to  Pirkheimer :  "  Here  I  am  a  gentleman,  while  at 
home  I  am  only  a  parasite.  Oh,  how  I  shall  freeze  after  this 
sunshine  !  "  But  the  friendships  then  formed  continued  a 
source  of  pleasure  to  the  close  of  his  life.  The  painters  of 
Venice  always  held  him  in  remembrance,  and  even  Raphael 
afterward  exchanged  portraits  and  drawings  with  him  in 
token  of  his  regard. 

Yet  the  influences  of  Italian  art,  deeply  as  they  must  have 
stirred  a  temperament  like  Diirer's,  led  him  to  no  imitation 
of  a  foreign  style.  To  the  classic  school  he  never  showed 
the  least  inclination.  Even  his  pictures  now  in  Italy,  most 
of  which  were  painted  during  his  residence  in  Venice,  or  a 
year  or  two  afterward,  are  full  of  strong  individuality.  In- 
deed, the  "Christ  among  the  Doctors,"  in  the  Barberini 
Palace,  Rome,  is  disagreeably  German,  with  its  realistic,  re- 
pulsive Pharisees  and  full-faced  Saviour  whose  eyes  look  out 
from  a  true  Teutonic  profusion  of  hair.  He  is  said  to  have 
executed  it  in  five  days.  The  "  Adoration  of  the  Magi,"  in 
the  tribune  of  the  Uffizi,  Florence,  is  much  more  pleasing, 
brilliant  in  color,  and  carefully  finished.  The  picture  of  the 
"Feast  of  Roses,"  hanging  in  the  monastery  of  Strahof, 
Prague,  was  painted  by  him  in  Venice  at  this  time,  at  the 


EARLY  GERMAN  PAINTING.  2-3 

order  of  a  German  guild.  It  is  about  four  feet  high,  and 
represents  the  Emperor  Maximilian,  a  pope,  and  several  saints 
and  merchants,  kneeling  before  the  Virgin  and  Child,  and 
crowned  by  them  with  rose-garlands,  while  an  angel  under- 
neath is  playing  on  the  lute.  To  the  same  epoch  belongs  the 
very  small  but  very  exquisite  "  Crucifixion  "  of  the  Dresden 
Gallery. 

The  end  of  the  year  1506  brought  Diirer  home  with  re- 
newed energy  for  his  labors.  His  style  now  began  to  display 
matured  vigor  and  intensity,  rich  in  ideas,  often  profound  or 
grotesque  in  expression,  and  poetic  with  a  poetry  that  lay 
deep  at  the  root  of  thought,  and  did  not  waste  itself  in  little 
graces  of  manner.  Realistic,  and  even  ugly  in  details,  sub- 
lime in  invention,  beautiful  in  pathos,  yet  full  of  sins  against 
good  taste,  "  he  links  together  the  holiest  and  the  homeliest 
images,  the  loftiest  and  the  most  ludicrous,  with  an  unfettered 
fearlessness,  an  unconscious  simplicity  which  disarms  criti- 
cism." We  shall  apprehend  the  truth  of  this  as  we  proceed 
to  study  his  pictures. 

Two  which  have  been  preserved  at  Vienna  are  very 
characteristic.  The  earliest  portrays,  on  a  panel  not  more 
than  three  feet  long,  the  "  Martyrdom  of  Ten  Thousand  Saints 
at  Alexandria  under  Adrian."  The  coloring  is  dark  yet 
glowing,  the  finish  of  miniature  fineness,  and  the  draperies 
easy  and  unbroken.  In  the  centre  of  the  composition  are 
painted  Durer  and  his  friend  Pirkheimer,  robed  in  black 
and  clasping  a  little  flag.  The  second  picture  is  called  "  The 
Trinity,"  and  is  generally  considered  the  artist's  masterpiece. 
It  was  designed  for  one  of  the  churches  of  Nuremberg. 
"  God  the  Father,  seated  on  a  rainbow,  is  holding  forth  the 


274 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


Son  crucified,  while  the  dove  hovers  over  them  ;  angels  float 
above,  carrying  the  instruments  of  the  Passion ;  the  host  of 
saints  and  martyrs  attend  to  the  right  and  left ;  and  below 
are  assembled  a  countless  company  of  the  doctors,  bishops, 
and  pillars  of  the  Church.  The  female  heads  are  very  Ger- 
man, but  the  male  saints  are  often  singularly  noble ;  still  a  few 
occur  of  very  extraordinary  aspect,  describable  only  by  the 
epithet  '  queer,'  if  not  positive  caricatures.  The  whole  of 
this  vast  scene  is  laid  in  the  sky ;  a  landscape  appears  below, 
with  the  figure  of  Albrecht  Diirer  himself,  holding  a  tablet 
with  an  inscription."  The  Vienna  Gallery  contains  other 
pictures  and  portraits,  while  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  is  an 
excellent  copy  of  one  of  his  finest  works,  a  "  Coronation  of 
the  Virgin,"  painted  in  1509  for  the  Frankfort  merchant, 
Jacob  Heller,  but  unfortunately  burned  two  centuries  ago. 
This  has,  however,  been  engraved  and  photographed,  and  we 
must  smile  to  see  the  ponderous  German  proportions  of  the 
Madonna  and  Child,  to  say  nothing  of  the  weight  of  the  up- 
lifted crown. 

Seventeen  pictures,  principally  portraits,  ascribed  to  him 
at  Munich,  exhibit  great  variety  of  power.  But  most  striking 
and  admirable  of  all  are  two  panels,  depicting,  in  life-size, 
St.  John  and  St.  Peter,  St.  Paul  and  St.  Mark,  as  "  The  Four 
Pillars  of  the  Church."  These  grand  figures,  so  different  yet 
so  expressive,  are  usually  termed  "The  Four  Temperaments." 
They  are  his  last  and  most  thoughtful  work,  and  are  equally 
remarkable  for  sublimity  and  simplicity.  He  gave  them  to 
his  native  city,  but  the  municipal  authorities  afterward  pre- 
sented them  to  the  Elector  Maximilian,  retaining  only  copies 
in  the  town-hall  of  Nuremberg. 


EARLY  GERMAN  PAINTING.  „- 

/  0 

Famous  as  a  painter,  Albrecht  Diirer  was  no  less  great  as 
an  engraver.  He  was  also  an  architect,  sculptor,  and  writer, 
not  only  upon  artistic  but  scientific  subjects — geometry,  for- 
tifications, and  proportion.  Nowhere  are  his  poetic  ideas  so 
freely  yet  so  singularly  rendered  as  in  the  woodcuts  and  en- 
gravings  which  he  and  his  immediate  predecessors  and  follow- 
ers introduced  into  Germany.  The  "  Apocalypse,"  which  we 
have  already  mentioned  as  completed  before  his  journey  to 
Venice,  was  succeeded  in  15 1 1  by  the  series  of  the  "  Life  of  the 
Virgin,"  and  the  "  Greater  "  and  "  Lesser  Passion  of  Christ." 
These  are  familiar  to  all,  the  "  Passion  of  Christ  "  being  still 
published  among  our  modern  gift-books.  His  conception 
of  the  Saviour  is  often  powerfully  repulsive,  yet  most  weird, 
pathetic,  and  wonderful.  One  strange  and  touching  piece 
represents  him  as  the  "  Man  of  Sorrows,"  seated  all  alone, 
with  his  thorn-crowned  head  bowed  upon  his  hands,  and  the 
nail-prints  in  his  feet ;  in  another  he  sinks  upon  his  knee  be- 
neath the  weight  of  the  cross. 

In  1513-1514  appeared  his  celebrated  engravings  of  "  The 
Knight,  the  Devil,  and  Death,"  and  "  Melancolia."  Well 
may  Charles  Blanc  say  of  these  :  "  They  are  impregnated  by 
the  most  misty  spiritualism,  and  at  the  same  time  character- 
ized by  a  patient  and  minute  execution  brought  to  the  very 
highest  finish."  Fouqu£'s  "Sintram"  is  founded  upon  the 
first  of  these  pictures ;  and  I  would  recommend  the  perusal 
of  its  closing  chapters  to  all  who  would  truly  wish  to  enter 
into  the  spirit  of  the  artist.  The  print  itself  represents  a  soli- 
tary knight  riding  through  a  dark  and  skull-strewed  valley. 
Death  rises  up  beside  him  on  a  lame  horse,  with  hour-glass 
and  passing-bell;  and  a  hideous  devil  comes  behind,  with 


276  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

frightful,  boar-like  face,  and  sickle-shaped  weapon ;  but  still 
he  rides  on  to  victory,  "without  fear  and  without  reproach." 
"Let  death  and  the  devil  attack  me,"  says  the  knight,  "I  will 
conquer  both  the  devil  and  death." 

The  "  Melancolia  "  is  quite  as  remarkable,  though  not  so 
generally  interesting.  "  A  grand,  winged  woman  sits  ab- 
sorbed in  sorrowful  thought,  while  surrounded  by  all  the  ap- 
pliances of  philosophy,  science,  art,  mechanics,  all  the  dis- 
coveries made  before  and  in  Albrecht  Durer's  day,  in  the 
book,  the  chart,  the  lever,  the  crystal,  the  crucible,  the  plane, 
the  hammer.  The  intention  of  this  picture  has  been  dis- 
puted, but  the  best  explanation  of  it  is  that  which  regards 
the  woman  as  pondering  on  the  humanly  unsolved  and  in- 
soluble mystery  of  the  sin  and  trouble  of  life."  We  can 
almost  fancy  we  hear  her  saying :  "  In  much  wisdom  is  much 
grief;  and  he  that  increaseth  knowledge  increaseth  sorrow." 

It  was  impossible  that  such  works  as  these  should  be 
given  to  the  world  without  exciting,  even  in  his  own  time,  an 
intense  admiration  for  the  genius  of  the  author.  Durer's 
reputation  soon  widened,  and  he  received  many  flattering 
offers  to  settle  himself  in  other  countries  or  provinces,  all  of 
which  he  declined.  In  1520,  however,  we  find  him  on  a  visit 
to  the  Netherlands,  in  company  with  his  wife ;  everywhere 
received  with  the  highest  applause  and  esteem,  and  justly 
honored  among  all  ranks,  from  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  to  the 
humblest  burghers  of  Flanders.  His  own  journal  of  this 
time  has  been  translated  into  English  by  Mrs.  Heaton,  in  her 
"Life  of  Albrecht  Diirer."  A  story  is  current  of  his  inter- 
view with  the  Emperor  Maximilian  and  one  of  his  courtiers, 
during  which  the  courtier  declined  to  demean  himself  to  hold 


EARLY  GERMAN  PAINTING.  „. 

a  step-ladder  for  the  artist,  and  was  reproved  by  the  mon- 
arch, with  the  remark  that  the  king  could  at  any  time  make 
a  nobleman,  but  that  only  God  could  make  such  a  painter. 
The  greatest  minds  in  Germany  were  drawn  to  him  by  natu- 
ral congeniality.  Living  amid  the  early  struggles  of  the  Ref- 
ormation, he  was  the  friend  of  Luther,  of  Melanchthon,  and 
of  Erasmus ;  and,  though  it  does  not  appear  that  he  openly 
professed  their  doctrines,  yet  it  is  evident  that  he  was  pro- 
foundly affected  by  .the  agitating  questions  of  the  day,  and  in 
entire  sympathy  with  all  that  was  pure,  elevated,  and  true. 
Kugler  calls  his  last  painting  of  the  "  Four  Pillars  of  the 
Church  "  the  "  first  complete  work  of  art  produced  by  Prot- 
estantism." But  though  we  cannot  positively  infer  that  any 
directly  Protestant  teaching  was  intended,  yet  it  is  certain 
that  the  inscriptions  on  these  pictures,  selected  by  Diirer  him- 
self, were  such  as  not  to  be  agreeable  to  a  Roman  Catholic 
prince,  and  were  consequently  cut  off  before  the  removal  of 
the  panels  to  Munich.  • 

As  Nuremberg  was  Durer's  birthplace,  so  it  is  also  his 
memorial  and  his  tomb.  After  a  successful,  yet  not  a  happy 
life,  he  died  in  his  native  city,  in  the  year  1528.  Sensitive 
and  inclined  to  melancholy  in  temperament,  his  unfortunate 
domestic  surroundings  were  a  weight  upon  his  spirit ;  neither 
was  there  about  him  that  atmosphere  of  friendly  appreciation 
which  a  gifted  heart  must  always  crave.  Pecuniary  injustice, 
too,  was  sometimes  added  to  the  burden,  for  he  speaks  of  his 
circumstances  as  "  lamentable  and  shameful,"  and  alludes  to 
the  insufficient  compensation  he  received  for  his  home  labors. 
Could  his  talents  have  expanded  under  the  generous  patron- 
age of  a  Medici  family,  or  a  Pope  Leo,  his  career  would 


278  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

doubtless  have  been  more  brilliant  and  prosperous,  yet  his 
individual  works  could  scarcely  have  been  more  powerful. 
No  traveler  can  wander  through  the  streets  and  churches  of 
gray  old  Nuremberg  without  echoing  the  words  of  Long- 
fellow : 

"  Here,  when  art  was  still  religion,  with  a  simple,  reverent  heart, 
Lived  and  labored  Albrecht  Diirer,  the  evangelist  of  art ; 

"  Hence  in  silence  and  in  sorrow,  toiling  still  with  busy  hand, 
Like  an  emigrant  he  wandered,  seeking  for  the  better  land. 

"  Emigravit  is  the  inscription  on  the  tombstone  where  he  lies  ; 
Dead  he  is  not,  but  departed,  for  the  artist  never  dies." 

None  of  Diirer's  scholars  achieved  any  celebrity.  The 
most  renowned  was  Albert  Altdorfer,  who,  without  the 
strength  of  his  master,  had  yet  a  romantic  and  poetic  tempera- 
ment, taste  in  conception,  and  tolerably  effective  execution. 
His  most  able  pictures  are  at  Munich,  especially  the  "  Vic- 
tory of  Alexander  the  Great  over  Darius."  This  was  much 
admired  by  Napoleon  I.  It  had  been  removed  from  Bavaria 
to  Paris,  and  the  emperor  ordered  it  to  be  taken  to  the  pal- 
ace of  St.  Cloud  and  hung  in  his  bath-room.  Other  works  by 
Altdorfer  are  exhibited  at  Vienna  and  in  Southern  Germany ; 
one  of  the  best  being  the  "  Recovery  of  the  Body  of  St. 
Quirinus,"  in  the  St.  Maurice  Chapel,  Nuremberg,  where  a 
fine  landscape-background  shows  his  talent  for  impressive 
coloring.  Altdorfer  possessed  much  skill  as  an  engraver,  as 
did  also  George  Pencz,  an  early  pupil  of  Diirer,  whose  Ger- 
man touch  was  softened  and  modified  by  Italian  examples. 
He  went  to  Rome  and  studied  under  the  successors  of  Ra- 
phael. His  finest  paintings  are  some  portraits  in  the  Berlin 
Museum ;  but  his  engravings  are  still  more  excellent,  and 


THE  CRUCIFIXION  (Albrecht  Durer). 


P.  278. 


EARLY  GERMAN  PATNTING.  2? 

were  highly  valued  in  Italy.  His  fellow-students  at  Nurem- 
berg, Hans  von  Kulmbach,  Rein  rich  Aldegrever,  Hans 
Scheuffelin,  and  Bartholomew  and  Sebald  Beham,  are  to  us 
little  more  than  names  of  insignificant  artists. 

Mathias  Griinewald  is  somewhat  more  widely  known. 
Some  authorities  refer  to  him  as  the  master  of  Lucas  Cranach, 
but  this  is  doubtful.  Like  most  of  the  German  painters  of 
this  epoch,  his  works  are  best  seen  at  Munich  and  Vienna. 
Hans  Burgkmair  (i473~i559)  was  a  more  prolific  painter,  and 
seems  to  be  the  link  between  the  school  of  Nuremberg  and 
that  of  Swabia,  of  which  Augsburg  was  the  important  centre. 
Pictures  from  his  hand  exist  at  Augsburg  and  Nuremberg,  as 
well  as  in  the  Pinakothek  and  the  Belvedere,  especially  a  "St. 
John  at  Patmos  "  of  considerable  merit.  He  executed  re- 
ligious subjects,  portraits,  and  landscapes,  with  more  than 
average  success,  and  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  immediate 
predecessor  of  Holbein. 

For,  while  Albrecht  Diirer  was  winning  distinction  at 
Nuremberg,  the  neighboring  towns  of  Ulm  and  Augsburg 
were  not  without  their  celebrities.  About  the  middle  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  Bartholomew  Zeitblom,  of  Ulm,  produced 
some  pleasing  works  of  devotional  sentiment  and  tender  col- 
oring. He  was  of  a  gentle  nature,  and  his  pictures  evince  a 
yearning  after  beauty,  but  not  much  force.  They  are  mostly 
preserved  in  the  collection  of  Stuttgart,  but  a  few  have  found 
their  way  into  other  museums,  particularly  a  graceful  compo- 
sition of  the  "  Handkerchief  of  St  Veronica,"  held  by  two 
angels,  and  imprinted  with  the  head  of  Christ.  His  suc- 
cessor, Martin  Schaffner,  born  about  1500  or  1508,  appears  to 
have  possessed  more  ability,  and  to  have  been  considerably 
19 


28o  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

modified  by  his  study  of  Italian  art.  His  best  paintings  are 
four  panels,  dating  1524,  in  the  Pinakothek,  Munich,  repre- 
senting the  "  Annunciation,"  the  "  Scene  in  the  Temple,"  the 
"Outpouring  of  the  Spirit,"  and  the  "Death  of  Mary." 
Others  are  preserved  at  Berlin. 

The  Holbein  family,  of  Augsburg,  furnished,  during  the 
fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries,  many  remarkable  additions 
to  the  history  of  German  painting.  The  family  was,  artisti- 
cally speaking,  an  extensive  one,  beginning  with  a  grand- 
father whose  existence  has  been  questioned,  but  who  is  pop- 
ularly believed  to  be  the  author  of  some  old  pictures  in  the 
Museum  of  Augsburg,  signed  "  Hans  Holbein,  C.  A.,"  and 
dated  1459.  Following  him  we  find  Hans  Holbein,  usually 
termed  "  the  Elder,"  born  about  1459,  and  resident  during 
the  earlier  part  of  his  life  at  Augsburg,  where  his  works 
are  shown  in  the  cathedral  and  gallery.  He  removed 
with  his  children  to  Basle,  and  seems  to  have  labored  with 
care  and  diligence,  though  with  somewhat  of  the  grotesque 
and  fantastic  manner  fashionable  at  that  period.  Kugler 
alludes  to  a  pale,  Mephistopheles-like  figure,  with  a  sharp, 
pinched,  Italian  physiognomy,  in  a  green  hunting-suit  and 
hat  adorned  with  a  cock's-feather,  which  often  appeared  in 
his  pictures.  His  faces  are  hard,  but  life-like.  Sixteen  pan- 
els are  attributed  to  him  at  Munich,  while  other  pictures  are 
exhibited  in  the  chapel  of  St.  Maurice,  Nuremberg,  and  at 
Basle  and  Frankfort.  Two  more  painters,  Sigmund  and 
Ambrose  Holbein,  by  some  authorities  supposed  to  be  broth- 
ers, by  some  sons,  of  Hans  the  Elder,  are  also  mentioned  at 
Augsburg.  A  portrait  in  the  London  Gallery,  of  a  lady  hold- 
ing a  sprig  of  forget-me-not,  with  a  fly  settled  on  her  cap,  is 


EARLY  GERMAN  PAINTING  2gl 

ascribed  to  Sigmund ;  but  it  was  upon  the  son,  Hans  Holbein 
the  Younger,  called  Holbein  par  excellence,  that  the  true  man- 
tle of  all  the  family  genius  descended ;  and  his  biography 
must  be  given  more  at  length. 

Born  at  Augsburg,  1494  or  1495,  he  displayed  a  precocity 
of  talent  very  unusual  in  the  North.  According  to  Ltibke, 
he  was  an  able  painter  at  the  age  of  fourteen.  His  earliest 
authentic  work,  with  the  exception  of  some  youthful  draw- 
ings, is  considered  to  be  four  altar-panels  in  the  Augsburg 
Gallery,  dating  1512.  Portraits  of  his  father  and  mother, 
taken  at  nearly  the  same  epoch,  exist  at  Hampton  Court.  In 
1517  we  find  him  working  at  Lucerne,  and  in  1521  at  Basle 
and  in  the  cathedral  of  Freiburg.  The  eight  pictures  of  the 
"  Passion,"  at  Basle,  exhibit  his  masterly  power,  but,  though 
admirable  in  technical  treatment,  they  are,  like  most  German 
renderings  of  this  subject,  very  unattractive  to  the  ordinary 
spectator.  The  mural  paintings  which  he  executed  at  this 
time  for  the  town-hall  of  Basle  are  now  so  injured  as  to  be 
scarcely  visible.  Among  the  works  still  attributed  to  him  in 
the  collections  of  that  city  we  may  particularly  notice  the 
large  and  graphic  scene  of  the  "  Meeting  of  Saul  and  Sam- 
uel." While  residing  at  Basle,  Holbein  married  Elizabeth 
Schmid,  about  whose  personal  appearance  critics  decidedly 
differ,  though  all  form  their  opinion  from  the  portrait  painted 
by  her  husband ;  some  describing  her  as  "  mild  and  pathetic," 
some  as  "  cross  and  red-eyed,"  and  others  as  "mysterious  and 
unpleasant."  He  was  evidently  not  devoted  to  her,  as  the 
greater  part  of  his  wedded  life  was  passed  in  England,  while 
she  remained  in  Germany ;  but,  though  he  has  been  accused 
of  dissipation  and  extravagance,  the  charges  seem  to  rest 
r.pon  slight  foundation. 


282  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

Plis  industry  and  ability  recommended  him  not  only  to 
native  but  to  foreign  patronage.  In  1526  he  visited  England, 
and  was  received  into  the  family  of  Sir  Thomas  More,  to 
whom  he  brought  a  letter  of  introduction  from  their  mutual 
friend,  the  learned  Erasmus,  who  has  been  so  frequently 
painted,  not  only  by  Holbein,  but  by  Diirer  and  other  of 
his  countrymen.  Holbein's  picture  of  the  More  family,  often 
repeated,  is  one  of  the  famous  family  pictures  of  England ; 
and,  as  he  soon  made  himself  a  wonderful  reputation  for  accu- 
rate and  vivid  likenesses,  he  was  appointed  painter  to  King 
Henry  VIII.,  and  his  portraits,  especially  those  at  Hampton 
Court,  have  become  to  us  most  interesting  and  faithful  memo- 
rials of  the  reign  of  that  powerful  monarch.  Of  course  Henry 
VIII.  employed  him  to  paint  his  numerous  wives,  though  not 
all  the  representations  of  those  royal  ladies  now  ascribed  to 
him  are  genuine.  It  is  stated  that  he  was  sent  to  execute  the 
portrait  of  Anne  of  Cleves,  and  so  flattered  the  likeness  that 
Henry  proposed  marriage,  but  was  bitterly  disappointed  at 
the  actual  appearance  of  the  lady.  Certainly  one  would  not 
think  that  this  picture,  now  preserved  in  the  Louvre,  could 
have  raised  the  king's  expectations  to  a  very  high  pitch.  Hol- 
bein's portraits  have  always  great  vigor  and  individuality. 
They  do  not  evince  the  least  imagination  or  soul;  yet  his 
realism  is  so  correct,  his  expression  so  natural,  and  his  heads 
so  simply  yet  thoroughly  and  forcibly  finished,  that  he  ranks 
in  this  respect  with  the  most  renowned  artists  of  any  age  or 
country.  His  likeness  of  the  goldsmith  Morett,  in  the  Dres- 
den Gallery,  was  long  attributed  to  Leonardo  da  Vinci. 

But  the  most  celebrated  of  Holbein's  works  are  the 
"  Meyer  Madonna,"  and  the  "  Dance  of  Death."  The  former 


ERASMUS  (Holbein). 


p.  282. 


EARLY  GERMAN  PAINTING. 

283 

of  these  is  carefully  treasured  in  the  Dresden  Gallery,  in  a 
room  set  apart  for  its  honor,  and  every  German  will  earnestly 
strive  to  convince  you  that  it  is  at  least  equal,  if  not  superior, 
to  the  Sistine.     Schlegel  says :  "  Humility  and  holiness  are 
here   so   beautifully  combined   that  I  think  it  corresponds 
better  with  the  ideal  of  the  divine  mother  than  the  Madonna 
of  Raphael  in  the  same  collection."     But  this  is  a  national 
delusion.     An  excellent  repetition  of  the  painting  is  owned 
by  Princess  Elizabeth  of  Hesse  at  Darmstadt,  and  the  cities 
of  Darmstadt  and  Dresden  have  long  held  a  fierce  and  never- 
settled  contention  as  to  which  picture  was  first  completed.    It 
represents  a  Madonna  and  Infant  Saviour,  with  the  family 
of  the  Burgomaster  Meyer  kneeling  in  adoration  before  her ; 
and  commemorates  their  gratitude  for  the  recovery  of  the 
burgomaster's  child.     The  crowned  Virgin  has  a  gentle  face, 
with  a  look  of  mingled  dignity  and  modesty ;   the  kneel- 
ing father  and  females  are  incomparably  Dutch  and  expres- 
sive, while  every  minute  detail,  down  to  the  folds  of  the  rich 
Turkey  carpet,  is  most  marvelously  given.     There  has  been 
a  controversy  of  opinion  as  to  the  babe,  which  rests  on  the 
Madonna's  bosom  and  stretches  forth  his  left  hand  toward 
the  beholder.    It  has  a  puny  and  sickly  air ;  and  some  critics, 
Ruskin  among  the  number,  insist  that  the  Virgin   has  put 
down  the  Christ-child  among  the  family  group,  and  taken 
up  their  suffering  infant  into  her  healing  arms.     Others,  with 
more  probability,  assert  that  it  is  a  "  Madonna  and  Child," 
arranged  according  to  the  usual  tradition,  and  that  the  little 
one  standing  on  the  floor  is  the  burgomaster's  son. 

The  "  Dance  of  Death  "  is  no  single  picture,  but  a  series 
of  fifty-three  woodcuts.     This  strange,  weird  subject  was  a 


284  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

favorite  one  at  that  period,  and  was  portrayed  by  artists  of 
all  grades,  in  paintings  or  etchings,  particularly  on  the  wall 
of  the  Dominican  convent  at  Basle,  and  upon  the  arches  of 
bridges.  Holbein's  designs,  published  in  1538  and  widely 
copied  and  circulated,  are  grimly  ironical  and  grotesque.  His 
fantastic,  triumphal  "  March  of  Death  "  has  in  it  something 
at  once  facetious,  malicious,  and  terrible.  "  Here  he  strikes 
with  his  wand  the  tambourine  before  the  wedding  proces- 
sion ;  there  he  takes  the  rdle  of  a  chambermaid,  and  clasps 
around  the  neck  of  a  pretty  countess  a  necklace  of  bones. 
Farther  on,  he  stops  the  peddler,  loaded  with  his  basket,  or 
pulls  off  the  hat  of  a  cardinal  selling  indulgences.  Sinister 
in  his  carnival  disguises,  sometimes  he  puts  on  the  accoutre- 
ments of  folly  to  mislead  a  queen ;  sometimes  an  unexpected 
guest,  in  the  guise  of  a  cup-bearer,  he  pours  the  deadly 
beverage  for  a  king.  Now  he  puts  on  the  deacon's  stole  to 
interrupt  the  sermon  of  the  preacher ;  now  that  of  the  sac- 
ristan, with  bell  and  lantern,  to  guide  the  convoy  of  the  priest 
himself,  bearing  the  viaticum  to  the  dying ;  or  he  takes  the 
place  of  the  dog  of  the  blind  man  who,  groping  toward  the 
tomb,  trembles  lest  he  should  make  a  false  step.  Here  Death 
has  not  the  horrible  grin ;  he  is  serious,  pitiful.  See  the 
resigned  sadness  of  the  poor  husbandman  who,  pushing  the 
plough  before  him,  is  suddenly  assisted  by  a  ploughboy  who 
is  Death !  How  touching  is  the  scene  which  Nature  frames 
with  such  naive  grace,  lighted  by  the  sun  sinking  to  the  hori- 
zon behind  the  tower  of  the  village  church !  " 

Holbein's  last  years  were  spent  in  London,  where  he  died 
of  the  plague  in  1543.  He  left  no  distinguished  followers, 
unless  we  may  except  Christopher  Amberger,  a  pupil  of  the 


EARLY  GERMAN  PAINTING. 


285 


elder  Holbein,  but  an  imitator  of  the  younger.  His  portraits 
resemble  those  of  his  contemporary,  but  are  softer  and  more 
feeble.  A  head  of  Charles  V.  at  Berlin,  and  of  Henry  VIII. 
at  Augsburg,  are  ascribed  to  him,  while  an  "  Herodias,"  at 
Vienna,  reminds  us  of  Luini's  delicate  finish.  Most  of  his 
pictures,  however,  are  at  or  near  Amberg. 

Protestant  Saxony  also  brings  before  us  in  this  century 
an  artist  who  may  be  considered  its  painter  of  the  Reforma- 
tion. Lucas  Cranach,  really  named  Lucas  Sunder,  was  born 
at  Cranach,  in  Franconia,  in  1472,  and  died  at  Weimar,  in 
1513.  He  was  for  a  long  time  court-painter  to  the  various 
Electors  of  Saxony,  and  was  prolific,  not  only  in  portraits,  but 
in  sacred,  historical,  mythological,  and  hunting  scenes,  as 
well  as  in  prints  and  engravings.  He  is  humorous,  realistic, 
fanciful,  and  intensely  national  and  Protestant.  Not  many 
good  examples  of  his  style  exist  out  of  Germany,  but  his 
works  are  liberally  scattered  throughout  that  empire.  His 
portraits  of  Luther  and  of  Melanchthon  are  familiar  to  all 
travelers.  A  large  upper  room  in  the  Dresden  Gallery  is 
filled  with  his  altar-pieces  and  pictures.  All  are  very  smooth- 
ly finished,  well-colored,  quaint,  and  pleasing.  Among  the 
best  is  "  Christ  blessing  Little  Children,"  a  subject  which  he 
frequently  painted.  The  children  are  genuine  German  babies; 
while  on  the  other  side  of  the  apartment  you  may  contem- 
plate Solomon  followed  by  a  train  of  equally  German  wives. 
His  hunting-pieces  are  excellently  done,  but  we  cannot  say 
so  much  for  the  nude  Venuses,  and  "  Adam  and  Eve,"  in 
which  he  sometimes  indulged.  In  one  of  these  Eve  offers 
the  fruit,  while  Adam  looks  at  it  and  reflectively  scratches 
his  head !  Munich  possesses  his  "  Woman  taken  in  Adultery," 


286  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING, 

"  Lot  and  his  Daughters,"  a  "  Crucifixion,"  and  several  cabi- 
net specimens,  together  with  some  portraits  of  the  Electors 
of  Saxony,  and  the  inevitable  Luther  and  Melanchthon.  In 
St.  Maurice's  Chapel,  Nuremberg,  are  two  representations  of 
"  Death  and  Redemption."  At  Weimar  is  a  large  altar-piece 
of  "  Christ  on  the  Cross,"  and  in  the  parish  church  of  Witten- 
berg is  another  altar-piece  of  the  "  Last  Supper,"  with  the 
Reformers  preaching  below.  In  the  National  Gallery,  Eng- 
land, we  find  the  portrait  of  a  young  girl,  with  an  enormous 
head-dress ;  and  at  Berlin  is  his  grotesque  and  extraordinary 
picture,  "The  Fountain  of  Youth."  "A  great  pool  or  tank, 
fed  by  the  miraculous  Fount,  adorned  with  statues  of  Venus 
and  Cupid,  appears  in  the  centre  of  the  composition.  Num- 
bers of  old  women,  horrid  hags,  are  splashing  about  in  it. 
Some  are  seen  undressing ;  others  are  brought  up  in  litters, 
or  on  their  husbands'  backs,  from  the  left :  they  enter  the 
water  and  cross  to  the  opposite  bank,  gradually  regaining 
youth  and  beauty  as  they  approach  it ;  and  are  received,  as 
they  come  out,  by  gallant  cavaliers,  who  conduct  them  to  a 
feast  spread  under  the  trees,  and  thence  to  the  dance.  The 
gradation  from  ugliness  to  what  Cranach  conceived  of  beauty 
is  admirably  expressed,  and  the  naiveti  of  the  whole  com- 
position is  most  striking." 

A  son  of  Cranach,  called  Lucas  Cranach  the  Younger, 
survived  till  1586.  His  works  are  shown  in  the  churches  of 
Wittenberg,  and  in  some  public  galleries ;  but  they  are  only 
faint  reflections  of  his  father's  method.  The  stirring  times  of 
the  Reformation  were  not  favorable  to  the  progress  of  paint- 
ing; while  over-zealous  partisans  were  so  eager  to  destroy 
the  pictures  and  images  associated  with  the  old  religion,  that 


EARLY  GERMAN  PAINTING. 


287 


we  cannot  cease  to  be  thankful  for  the  masterpieces  which 
escaped  their  hands.  After  the  ferment  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  a  new  era  in  art,  with  an  entire  change  in  style,  was, 
we  shall  soon  see,  to  be  expected  in  Germany,  Flanders,  and 
Holland. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

LATER   FLEMISH    AND    GERMAN    PAINTING. 

THE  artistic  records  of  Flanders  and  Germany,  from  the 
death  of  Que'ntin  Matsys  and  Albrecht  Diirer  to  the  age  of 
Rubens,  remind  us  much  of  the  season  of  famine  which  in 
ancient  Egypt  followed  the  seven  years  of  plenty.  A  crowd 
of  painters  of  little  reputation  and  less  ability  are  noticed  in 
the  catalogues  referring  to  thi's  intervening  period;  but  it 
will  only  be  necessary  to  specify  a  few  of  those  best  known, 
whose  works  will  be  found  sprinkled  through  Northern  gal- 
leries, filling  up  the  spaces  between  more  famous  pictures. 

Among  the  Flemish  imitators  of  Italian  excellence  who 
survived  Matsys,  we  must  first  refer  to  Lambert  Sustermann, 
or  Lambert  Lombard,  born  at  Lie"ge,  1506,  and  a  disciple  of 
Andrea,  del  Sarto  at  Florence,  whose  style  he  endeavored  to 
introduce  into  the  school  for  artists  which  he  subsequently 
established  at  Liege,  after  his  return  to  that  city,  where  he 
died,  about  1560.  He  was  accomplished  and  talented,  but 
unable  to  reach  his  ideal.  Not  many  of  his  works  remain. 
A  "  Madonna  "  is  in  the  Berlin  Museum.  His  pupil,  Franz 
Floris,  or  rather  Franz  de  Vriendt,  was  more  industrious.  He 
was  born  at  Antwerp,  in  1520,  and  became  celebrated  and 
rich,  building  himself  a  splendid  house,  and  having  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  young  painters  in  his  studio.  It  is  he  whom 


LATER  FLEMISH  AND   GERMAN  PAINTING.       28o 

Lubke  mentions  as  the  father-in-law  of  Quentin  Matsys ;  but 
dates  apparently  contradict  the  statement.  His  pictures  dis- 
play many  Italian  mannerisms  of  drawing  and  expression, 
but  are  generally  tame  and  tasteless.  Kugler  speaks  of  "  Lot 
and  his  Daughters  "  as  an  "  insufferable  production."  Berlin 
and  Antwerp  contain  most  of  his  paintings,  the  "Fall  of 
the  Angels  "  being  in  the  Antwerp  Museum.  Floris's  best 
pupils  were  Martin  de  Vos  and  the  elder  Pourbus.  De  Vos 
afterward  studied  in  Venice,  and  acquired  considerable  skill 
in  coloring,  following  Tintoretto  as  his  model.  The  Pour- 
bus  family,  father  and  son,  born  respectively  in  1540  and 
1570,  were  clever  portrait-painters,  and  their  pictures  are 
still  valued. 

The  first  half  of  the  sixteenth  century  witnessed  the  birth 
of  landscape-painting  in  the  Netherlands.  The  delineation 
of  figures  had  previously  been  considered  in  all  countries  as 
the  chief  end  of  art ;  the  more  the  figures,  the  higher  the  art ! 
But  in  Joachim  Patinier  (1490-1545),  and  his  contemporary 
Henri  de  Bles,  the  scenery  of  the  backgrounds  rose  into  im- 
portance, till  copies  of  Nature,  with  men  and  women  only  as 
accessories,  became  novel  and  admired  additions  to  the  pict- 
ures of  the  period.  Patinier's  landscapes  are  crude  and  often 
gaudy  in  color,  gay  tints  contrasted  with  blue-green  meadows 
and  fantastic  rocks.  Those  of  De  Bles  are  more  subdued  in 
tone,  but  equally  crowded  with  details.  He  was  called  by 
the  Italians  "  Civetta"  or  "  The  Owl,"  from  the  monogram 
which  he  adopted.  Specimens  of  the  works  of  these  artists 
are  preserved  at  Antwerp,  Munich,  Vienna,  and  Berlin. 

Matthew  and  Paul  Bril,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1554  and 
1556,  continued  the  same  line  of  painting;  but  soon  left  the 


290  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

Netherlands  for  Rome,  where  they  were  popular  and  patron- 
ized. Matthew  died  early,  but  Paul  survived  till  1626,  and 
may  be  regarded  as  the  precursor  of  Claude  Lorraine.  He 
was  fond  of  representing  ruins,  or  quiet  and  melancholy 
scenes.  To  our  present  criticism  his  coloring  is  cold,  and 
his  foliage  conventional;  but  to  eyes  unaccustomed  to  the 
beauties  of  landscape-art  he  possessed  a  charm  which  made 
him  a  favorite  among  Roman  popes  and  nobles.  His  works 
are  mostly  in  Italian  galleries,  but  a  few  may  be  seen  at 
Dresden  and  Berlin,  particularly  a  curious  "  Building  of  the 
Tower  of  Babel." 

Not  only  landscape  but  genre  painting  began  to  be  now 
developed.  This  term  genre,  so  often  used,  especially  in  the 
Flemish  and  Dutch  schools,  applies  to  small-sized  represen- 
tations of  common  life,  which  may  be  pleasing  or  vulgar,  ac- 
cording to  the  taste  of  the  artist  and  his  choice  of  a  subject. 
Its  earlier  masters  devoted  themselves  chiefly  to  depicting  the 
every-day  existence  of  the  lower  classes,  elaborating  all  de- 
tails with  the  care  and  relish  so  characteristic  of  the  country. 

Peter  Breughel,  born  about  1520,  may  be  said  to  have 
fathered  this  branch  of  art.  He  is  usually  called  "  Peasant 
Breughel,"  from  his  coarse  yet  graphic  sketches  of  peasants 
dancing,  rioting,  or  quarreling.  Such  may  be  inspected  at 
Berlin,  Dresden,  or  Vienna.  In  the  latter  gallery  is  a  com- 
position of  wild  humor,  called  the  "  Fight  between  Carnival 
and  Lent,"  in  which  the  thin  are  attacking  the  fat!  He 
treated  sacred  subjects  in  the  same  fantastic  spirit ;  as,  for' 
example,  his  "Procession  to  Calvary,"  in  the  Berlin  Museum, 
where  the  Saviour  bears  his  cross,  but  the  two  thieves  are 
"  seated  ruefully  in  a  cart,  with  their  hands  tied  behind  them, 


LATER  FLEMISH  AND   GERMAN  PAINTING. 

and  a  friar,  on  the  bench  opposite,  exhorting  them  to  repent- 
ance." 

The  younger  Peter  Breughel,  son  of  the  preceding, 
painted  like  a  goblin.  He  gained  the  title  of  "  Hell  Breu- 
ghel," from  his  fancy  for  representing  the  infernal  regions. 
One  of  these  fiery  pictures  is  at  Dresden.  The  "  Burning  of 
Sodom  "  was  another  congenial  theme.  Forked  flames  and 
demons  are  finished  with  the  most  scrupulous  fidelity. 

By  far  the  most  renowned,  however,  of  this  strange  family 
was  the  second  son,  Jan,  called  "  Velvet  Breughel "  or 
"  Flower  Breughel,"  born  at  Antwerp,  1568,  and  flourishing 
till  1625.  His  gifts  were  very  varied,  but  he  excelled  es- 
pecially in  landscapes,  and  acquired  the  sobriquet  of  "  Vel- 
vet "  from  the  softness  and  smoothness  of  his  style.  Yet  in 
spite  of  such  softness  his  clouds  and  foliage  have  a  woolly 
aspect  which  is  often  unpleasing.  He  delighted  in  depicting 
"  Paradise,"  into  which  he  introduced  all  sorts  of  plants, 
trees,  and  animals.  As  a  flower-painter  he  was  also  cele- 
brated. One  of  his  pieces  at  Munich  is  a  bouquet  around 
which  are  buzzing  numbers  of  bees,  bugs,  and  butterflies.  A 
great  many  of  his  landscapes  are  at  Dresden,  Munich,  and 
Berlin.  His  pupils  are  unimportant.  Daniel  Seghers  is 
thought  to  have  equaled  him  in  flowers ;  while  his  follower 
Roland  Savery,  occasionally  mentioned  as  a  pupil  of  Bril,  has 
similar  but  fewer  pictures  at  Berlin. 

While  approaching  the  great  revival  of  Flemish  art  at  the 
beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  we  have  seen  to  how 
low  an  ebb  the  genius  of  the  Netherlands  had  fallen.  It  was 
again  to  rise  in  Peter  Paul  Rubens,  born  in  Siegen,  a  town 
of  Westphalia,  on  the  festival  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul,  June  29, 


292  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

1577.  That  Antwerp  and  Cologne  have  both  been  claimed 
as  his  birthplace  is  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  his  father 
was  a  citizen  of  Antwerp  who  had  only  left  his  residence 
because  of  the  religious  disturbances  of  the  Netherlands. 
When  the  child  became  a  year  old,  the  family  settled  in  Co- 
logne, but  ten  years  afterward  removed  back  to  Antwerp, 
where  the  young  painter  was  placed  under  the  instruction 
of  Adam  van  Noort  and  Otto  van  Veen,  neither  of  whom  had 
much  artistic  knowledge  to  impart.  At  the  age  of  twenty- 
three  he  found  a  favorable  opportunity  for  a  journey  to  Italy, 
being  recommended  by  the  Governor  of  the  Netherlands  to 
the  patronage  of  the  Duke  of  Mantua.  There  he  studied 
the  classic  frescoes  of  Andrea  Mantegna  in  the  Palazzo  del 
Te;  went  to  Venice,  and  immediately  applied  himself  to 
copying  Titian  and  Paul  Veronese,  whose  splendor  of  color 
so  well  accorded  with  his  ardent  temperament,  and  was 
transfused  successfully  into  his  own  glowing  style.  He  was 
also  •  employed  by  the  duke  to  copy  pictures  in  Rome  and 
other  cities,  and,  it  is  thought,  was  even  sent  by  him  on  a 
mission  to  Spain — but  this  cannot  be  definitely  ascertained. 
Enthusiastically  attached  to  Italy,  he  was  only  recalled  to 
Flanders  by  the  death  of  his  mother,  in  1608.  As  he  deter- 
mined to  make  Antwerp  his  future  home,  he  built  himself  a 
superb  house  which  he  ornamented  in  Southern  style,  col- 
lecting in  it  all  his  Italian  treasures,  and  living  in  great 
elegance,  enjoying  both  material  and  intellectual  pleasures. 
Here  he  painted  assiduously,  charmed  and  benefited  his 
numerous  puplis,  sumptuously  entertained  his  friends,  and 
conversed  with  them  in  the  seven  languages  which  he  spoke 
with  fluency.  Here,  too,  he  married  his  first  wife,  Elizabeth 


LATER  FLEMISH  AND  GERMAN  PAINTING.       293 

or  Isabella  Brandt,  and  was  appointed  painter  to  the  court. 
At  this  period  he  completed  the  "  Descent  from  the  Cross," 
his  famous  picture  in  the  cathedral  of  Antwerp.  It  was  exe- 
cuted for  a  company  of  archers,  and  was  originally  designed 
to  honor  their  patron,  St.  Christopher,  or  the  "  Christ-Bearer : " 
thus  Rubens  conceived  the  idea  of  representing  in  it  all 
those  who  had  ever  borne  Christ  in  their  arms — from  the 
aged  Simeon,  who  first  held  the  Infant  Saviour  in  the  Temple, 
to  the  disciples  who  took  down  his  body  from  the  cross.  This 
"  Descent "  forms  the  centre  of  the  altar-piece,  and  is  remark- 
able for  the  vivid  action  of  its  figures,  and  the  body  of  Jesus 
lifted  midway  down,  with  the  white  winding-sheet  drawn 
behind  it.  A  full  description  of  the  painting  will  be  found 
in  the  chapter  entitled  "World-Pictures." 

The  same  cathedral  contains  the  "Elevation  of  the 
Cross,"  large  and  powerful,  but  repulsive;  also  an  altar-piece 
of  the  "  Assumption  of  the  Virgin ;  "  while  in  the  church  of 
St.-Jacques,  not  far  off,  is  Rubens's  portrait,  together  with  his 
"Holy  Family,"  a  varied  and  singular  group,  where  the 
sacred  personages  are  represented  by  different  members  of 
the  artist's  family  through  several  generations.  In  the  year 
1620  Rubens  was  called  to  France  by  Marie  de  Medici, 
widow  of  Henry  IV.  To  her  orders  we  owe  the  immense 
allegorical  series  of  pictures  portraying  her  history  which 
now  meet  our  astonished  gaze  in  the  Gallery  of  the  Louvre. 
She  intended  them  to  adorn  the  Palace  of  the  Luxembourg, 
where  she  was  then  residing.  Twenty-one  vast  pieces  of  can- 
vas record  the  events  of  her  life— birth,  education,  marriage, 
coronation,  etc.,  terminating  in  the  " Triumph  of  Truth."  She 
is  subsequently  depicted  as  Bellona,  Goddess  of  War,  holding 


294  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

in  her  hand  the  statue  of  Victory,  while  she  is  being  crowned 
with  laurels."  The  crowd  of  innumerable  figures,  rosy  faces, 
rosier,  undraped  and  animated  forms,  the  gorgeous  coloring, 
royal  robes,  kingly  crowns,  and  wild  confusion  of  magnificence, 
must  be  seen  to  be  appreciated,  and  cannot  be  described. 
More  than  twenty  of  Rubens's  other  paintings  are  in  the 
Louvre,  but  we  are  so  confounded  by  the  contemplation  of 
the  history  of  Marie  de  Medici  that  we  quite  forget  to  notice 
the  others. 

After  the  death  of  his  wife,  in  1626,  Rubens  was  employed 
in  diplomatic  missions,  and  was  sent  to  the  court  of  Spain, 
where  some  of  his  finest  efforts  are  still  preserved.  The 
"Brazen  Serpent,"  and  the  "Adoration  of  the  Kings,"  at 
Madrid,  are  splendid  examples  of  force  and  coloring.  His 
journey  to  Spain  was  followed  by  a  similar  embassy  to  Eng- 
land ;  and  biographers  relate  that  on  one  of  these  occasions 
a  courtier,  who  found  him  at  his  easel,  inquired,  "  Does  the 
embassador  of  his  Catholic  Majesty  sometimes  amuse  him- 
self with  painting  ?  "  "  I  amuse  myself  sometimes  with  being 
an  embassador,"  was  Rubens's  composed  reply.  Such  was 
the  admiration  evoked  by  his  genius,  the  charm  of  his  man- 
ners, and  the  grace  and  gallantry  of  his  person,  that  he 
received  the  honor  of  knighthood  from  both  Philip  of  Spain 
and  the  English  King  Charles  I.  His  pictures  are  highly 
prized  in  England,  especially  by  wealthy  noblemen,  and  are 
to  be  seen  in  the  Dulwich  Gallery,  at  Blenheim,  Chatsworth, 
Warwick  Castle,  and  in  other  private  and  royal  collections. 
Among  the  most  celebrated  is  his  "  Portraits  of  the  Arundel 
Family,"  one  of  the  great  English  family  pictures.  "The 
Earl  and  Countess  of  Arundel  are  under  a  portico  with 


THE  FLIGHT  INTO  EGYPT  (Rubfits). 


LATER  FLEMISH  AND  GERMAN  PAINTING.       395 

twisted  columns;  a  rich  curtain  and  a  landscape  are  seen 
beyond.  The  countess  is  seated  in  a  chair  of  state,  with  one 
hand  on  the  head  of  a  white  greyhound.  The  earl  stands 
behind,  with  a  hand  on  her  chair.  There  is  a  little  boy,  Earl 
Thomas's  grandson,  afterward  Cardinal  Howard,  in  crimson 
velvet,  trimmed  with  gold  lace ;  and  a  dwarf  on  the  other 
side  of  the  dog,  with  one  hand  on  its  back."  The  National 
Gallery,  London,  has  no  particularly  fine  specimens  of  this 
master.  Its  most  pleasing  picture  from  his  hand  is  the 
"  Lady  in  a  Straw  Hat,"  believed  to  be  the  portrait  of  a 
noted  Flemish  beauty. 

In  1630  Rubens  married  the  lovely  Helena  Fourment, 
whom  he  has  immortalized  in  so  many  portraits ;  for  he  was 
much  given  to  painting  the  likenesses  of  both  his  wives,  as 
well  as  of  himself  and  of  his  children.  Helena  was  but  six- 
teen years  old,  and  he  fifty-three ;  yet  they  seem  to  have  lived 
very  happily  together.  They  were  apparently  blessed  with 
all  that  could  make  life  desirable.  Rubens  had  long  since 
attained  universal  reputation ;  as  a  colorist  he  was  unequaled, 
except  by  the  Venetians.  The  magnificence  of  his  style, 
which  occasionally  degenerates  into  coarseness  and  sensu- 
ality, and  is  specially  fond  of  nudity  and  ruddy  flesh-tints, 
was  enthusiastically  applauded.  He  had  more  orders  than 
he  could  fill ;  and  covered  acres  of  canvas  with  an  ease  and 
brilliancy  that  threw  all  other  artists  in  the  shade.  Wealth 
and  luxury,  mental  cultivation,  domestic  comfort,  appreciative 
friends,  and  world-wide  honor,  attended  his  declining  years, 
which  were  only  embittered  by  repeated  attacks  of  gout.  He 
died  in  1640,  and  was  buried  in  a  chapel  of  the  church  of 
St.-Jacques,  Antwerp. 

20 


296  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

Few  artists,  except  Raphael,  have  had  so  successful  a 
career;  and  the  success  was  enhanced  by  the  fact  that 
Rubens  was  eminently  calculated  for  such  prosperity.  His 
animal  nature  was  strong  and  buoyant ;  his  instincts  gay  and 
healthy,  but  quite  unspiritual.  His  pictures  reveal  the  man : 
no  depth  of  thought,  but  lavish  richness  of  fancy,  superb 
harmony  of  color,  fertility,  brilliancy,  kindliness,  and  careless 
and  absolute  enjoyment  of  all  the  good  things  of  this  world. 
His  conceptions  of  sacred  scenes  were,  as  might  be  expected, 
thoroughly  materialistic,  and  the  characters  uncompromis- 
ingly real.  "Robust  boatmen,  blacksmiths,  and  Flemish 
peasants,  will  now  ever  live  on  his  canvas  as  representatives 
of  apostles,  saints,  martyrs,  or  executioners."  One  author 
complains  that  his  Dutch  Magdalenes  "  wring  their  hands  like 
repentant  washer- women."  Yet  all  are  full  of  animation  and 
dramatic  vigor.  His  mythological  scenes  seem  splendidly 
inexhaustible ;  while  his  groups  of  children  are  most  natural 
and  charming,  as  may  be  perceived  in  the  Museum  of  Berlin, 
and  in  the  Munich  Pinakothek,  where  they  are  carrying 
festoons  and  garlands  of  fruit. 

We  begin  to  realize  Rubens's  amazing  productiveness 
when  we  learn  that  he  accomplished  with  his  pupils  between 
three  and  four  thousand  works,  profusely  distributed  through 
all  the  countries  of  Europe.  Many  of  them  were  immensely 
large.  According  to  a  German  authority,  eight  paintings, 
now  at  Malines,  were  completed  in  eighteen  days.  In  addi- 
tion to  those  already  spoken  of  in  Flanders  and  England,  are 
sixty-two  pictures  at  Madrid,  more  than  forty  both  at  Paris 
and  Vienna,  sixty  at  St.  Petersburg,  about  ninety  at  Munich, 
a  great  number  at  Dresden,  Berlin,  and  Brussels,  and  an 


LA  TER  FLEMISH  AND   GERMAN  PAINTING,       2g7 

interesting  collection  in  the  Museum  of  Antwerp.  The  finest 
among  this  vast  assemblage  are  the  "Descent  from  the 
Cross,"  and  "Elevation  of  the  Cross,"  in  the  Antwerp  Cathe- 
dral ;  the  "  Incredulity  of  St.  Thomas,"  and  "  Communion  of 
St.  Francis,"  in  the  Academy  of  that  city;  as  well  as  the 
"  Holy  Family,"  previously  alluded  to,  in  the  church  of  St.- 
Jacques;  the  "Crucifixion  of  St.  Peter,"  at  Cologne;  the 
"Last  Judgment,"  "Battle  of  the  Amazons,"  "Virgin  and 
Serpent,"  "Procession  of  Children,"  "Susannah  and  the  El- 
ders," and  the  "  Fall  of  the  Damned,"  in  the  Munich  Gallery ; 
the  "Brazen  Serpent,"  "Holy  Family,"  and  "Garden  of 
Love,"  at  Madrid ;  some  "  Bacchanalian  Scenes,"  at  St. 
Petersburg ;  the  "  Marie  de  Medici  Series,"  of  the  Louvre  ; 
the  "  Flight  into  Egypt,"  at  Nantes ;  the  "  Four  Quarters  of 
the  Globe,"  "  Appearance  of  the  Virgin  to  St.  Ildefonso,"  the 
"  Deluge  in  Phrygia,"  and  "  Portrait  of  Helena  Fourment," 
at  Vienna;  the  "Raising  of  Lazarus,"  at  Berlin;  the  "St. 
Jerome,"  at  Dresden;  and  the  "Four  Philosophers,"  in  the 
Pitti  Palace,  Florence. 

Even  as  an  animal-painter  Rubens  displayed  unusual 
ability,  as  is  proved  by  his  "  Daniel  in  the  Lions'  Den,"  in 
Hamilton  Palace,  England — a  subject  chosen  for  the  sake  of 
the  lions,  and  not  of  Daniel.  Yet,  as  the  versatile  artist  was 
more  partial  to  other  themes,  it  is  said  that  when  his  pictures 
required  the  presence  of  animals  they  were  generally  painted 
in  by  his  friend  and  fellow-citizen  Franz  Snyders,  who  has 
left  us  "  Boar-Hunts  "  in  nearly  every  Continental  gallery. 
He  excelled  not  only  in  wild  beasts,  but  in  peaceful  vege- 
tables, and  is  celebrated  both  for  his  culinary  and  hunting 
scenes.  His  successor,  Jan  Fyt,  of  Antwerp  (1609-1661), 


298 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


is  the  only  one  who  can  compete  with  him  in  animals  or 
birds. 

Among  all  Rubens's  pupils,  Vandyck  occupies  of  course 
the  foremost  place;  but  Jacob  Jordaens  also  deserves  honor- 
able mention.  Jordaens  was  born  at  Antwerp,  in  1593,  studied 
a  while  with  Adam  van  Noort,  whose  daughter  he  married, 
and  then  became  the  assistant  and  pupil  of  Rubens,  whom 
he  survived  thirty-eight  years.  He  was  a  clever  genre  painter, 
and  aspired  to  fill  large  canvases  in  the  heroic  style.  He 
acquired  something  of  his  masters'  touch,  but  his  deep 
shadows  and  fiery  lights  exaggerate  even  Rubens's  coloring. 
Viardot  considers  his  chef-d'ceuvre  to  be  an  allegorical  autum- 
nal picture  in  the  Brussels  Museum.  The  same  building 
contains  his  "Miracle  of  St.  Martin."  Near  the  Hague  are 
excellent  historical  scenes,  founded  upon  incidents  in  the 
life  of  Prince  Frederick  Henry  of  Orange ;  while  several  more 
are  at  Paris,  Vienna,  and  Dresden,  or  hanging  as  altar-pieces 
in  various  churches. 

The  name  of  Anton  or  Anthony  Vandyck  has  become 
so  familiar  to  us  from  his  long  residence  in  England,  and  his 
portraits  painted  in  that  country,  that  we  scarcely  think  of 
him  as  a  Flemish  artist.  He  was,  however,  born  at  Antwerp, 
in  1599,  and  was  instructed  by  Rubens,  who  took  great  pride 
in  his  evident  talents,  but  advised  him  to  confine  himself  to 
portraits,  for  which  his  genius  was  peculiarly  adapted.  As 
his  father  was  a  merchant  in  good  circumstances,  many  ad- 
vantages of  education  were  given  him,  and  before  he  was 
twenty  years  old  he  was  admitted  as  a  member  of  the  Guild 
of  St.  Luke.  In  1620  Vandyck  seems  to  have  paid  a  visit 
to  England,  but  he  soon  returned  to  Antwerp,  whence,  after 


LATER  FLEMISH  AND  GERMAN  PAINTING 

2  99 

further  practice  in  Rubens.'s  studio,  he  proceeded  to  Italy  in 
1623.  From  three  to  five  years  were  spent  in  studying  the 
Italian  masters,  especially  Titian  and  Giorgione.  While  in 
Rome,  he  painted  the  portrait  of  the  Cardinal  Bentiviglio, 
now  in  the  Pitti  Palace,  Florence,  and  the  "  Entombment " 
of  the  Borghese  Gallery.  The  Flemish  artists  resident  in 
Rome  did  not  fraternize  kindly  with  the  new-comer.  Their 
coarse,  rude  habits  were  uncongenial  to  him,  while  the  extrav- 
agance and  fastidiousness  of  his  tastes  caused  him  to  be 
called  the  "  Cavalier  Painter."  In  Genoa  he  was  flatteringly 
received.  In  the  latter  city  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  a 
blind  and  aged  lady,  Sofonisba  Anguisciola,  who  had  been 
in  her  day  the  most  celebrated  of  female  portrait-painters, 
having  been  invited  in  her  youth  to  the  court  of  Spain,  and 
married  by  Philip  II.  to  a  nobleman.  Vandyck  always  spoke 
of  her  with  enthusiasm,  and  declared  that  he  "  owed  more  to 
her  conversation  than  to  the  teaching  of  all  the  schools." 

The  prevalence  of  the  plague  brought  the  artist  back  to 
Flanders,  with  ambition  stimulated  and  powers  perfected. 
There  he  painted  the  Antwerp  "Crucifixion,"  which  is  thought 
his  masterpiece ;  and  an  altar-piece  of  "  St.  Augustine  in  Ec- 
stasy," for  the  church  of  the  Augustinians.  Indeed,  Van- 
dyck has  left  us  many  sacred  pictures,  which,  if  they  do  not 
rank  so  high  as  his  portraits,  and  are  inferior  in  energy  and 
brilliancy  to  the  works  of  Rubens,  yet  possess  a  delicacy  and 
dignity  which  are  very  attractive.  The  subjects  are  quiet, 
and  characterized  by  repose  or  pathos.  Such  are  his  "  Cruci- 
fixions," his  "Deposition  from  the  Cross,"  and  "Entomb- 
ment," at  Antwerp;  a  "Pieta,"  at  Munich;  a  "Vision  of  the 
Blessed  Hermann  Joseph,"  and  "  Enthroned  Madonna  with 


3oo  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

Saints,"  at  Vienna;  a  "Mourning  over  the  Body  of  the  Sav- 
iour," and  "Penitent  Sinners  coming  to  Christ,"  at  Berlin, 
a  "  Madonna  with  Partridges,"  at  St.  Petersburg ;  a  "  Ma- 
donna and  Child,"  and  "  St.  Jerome,"  at  Dresden  ;  a  "  Be- 
trayal of  Christ,"  at  Madrid ;  and  a  "  Dead  Christ,"  in  the 
Louvre. 

But  a  restlessness  of  disposition,  and  a  love  of  luxury  and 
splendor  too  inordinate  for  his  means,  rendered  Vandyck 
discontented  in  his  native  land.  He  complained  of  being 
unable  to  live  from  the  proceeds  of  his  brush,  though  he  was 
constantly  employed,  both  in  Flanders  and  in  Holland. 
About  1630  he  determined  to  try  his  fortunes  in  England  ; 
but  as  he  failed  of  an  introduction  to  the  king  and  the  lead- 
ing nobility,  the  journey  appeared  fruitless,  and  he  returned 
home  much  disappointed.  This  was,  however,  mentioned  to 
Charles  I.,  who  quickly  invited  him  to  come  back,  gave  him 
suitable  apartments,  installed  him  as  his  own  painter  with  a 
pension  of  two  hundred  pounds  a  year,  and  eventually 
knighted  him.  His  refined  and  agreeable  manners  made 
him  a  favorite  at  court,  and  especially  endeared  him  to  the 
king,  with  whom  his  name  is  always  associated,  from  the  fre- 
quent portraits  of  the  ill-fated  monarch  and  his  family  which 
were  executed  by  his  hand.  Every  one  knows  Charles  I. 
through  the  likenesses  of  Vandyck.  Besides  his  equestrian 
portrait  at  Windsor,  there  is  an  admirable  representation  of 
the  king,  in  cavalier  costume,  at  the  Louvre,  which,  it  is  said, 
used  to  torment  the  equally  unfortunate  Louis  XVI.  with 
dismal  forebodings;  a  full-length  figure  at  Dresden,  and 
other  portraits  at  Vienna  and  the  Hermitage.  Queen  Hen- 
rietta Maria  is  almost  as  often  repeated,  as  well  as  several 


LATER  FLEMISH  AND  GERMAN  PAINTING. 

family  groups.  The  picture  catalogued  as  "  The  Children  of 
Charles  I.  "  is  extremely  beautiful.  It  is  best  seen  in  Berlin, 
though  found  in  other  galleries.  The  quaint  little  princes 
and  princess  stand  demurely  and  pathetically  before  the 
spectator,  while  a  King  Charles  spaniel  is  beside  the  young 
Elizabeth. 

The  ^nobles  of  England  were  also  eager  to  patronize  the 
illustrious  Fleming,  and  he  painted  many  single  figures  or 
family  pictures  which  are  held  as  inestimable  relics  to  the 
present  day.  Among  them  are  various  likenesses  of  the 
Arundels,  of  the  Ladies  Percy,  the  Earl  of  Northumberland, 
and  the  Duke  of  Buckingham ;  the  Pembroke  or  Wilton  fam- 
ily picture,  which  includes  ten  admirable  figures,  even  to 
three  angels  who  float  in  the  clouds  above  and  are  meant  for 
three  daughters  who  died  in  their  babyhood ;  and  the  splen- 
did portrait  of  Lady  Venetia  Digby  at  Windsor  Castle,  and 
elsewhere.  These  are  more  silvery  in  tone,  and  not  so  rich 
and  glowing  as  his  youthful  works,  but  their  coloring,  though 
more  delicate,  is  equally  harmonious,  and  wonderfully  natural. 

Vandyck's  usual  prices  were  forty  pounds  for  a  half  and 
sixty  pounds  for  a  whole-length  picture.  He  took  infinite 
pains  with  his  sitters,  and  always  succeeded  in  imparting  an 
expression  of  elegance,  stateliness,  and  dignity.  His  own 
refinement  idealized  his  faces  to  a  certain  point,  and  the 
graceful  costume  of  the  times  lent  an  added  charm.  Yet, 
even  with  liberal  orders  and  payments,  his  extravagance  more 
than  kept  pace  with  his  wealth.  He  led  a  gay  and  restless 
life,  and  often  occupied  himself,  and  dissipated  much  of  his 
fortune,  in  the  pursuit  of  alchemy  and  the  philosopher's  stone. 
In  his  thirty-ninth  year  he  was  married,  by  favor  of  the  king, 


302 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


to  Marie  Ruthven,  a  relative  of  the  Earl  of  Gowrie ;  but  the 
wife  looked  down  upon  the  husband,  and  the  husband  neg- 
lected the  wife,  and  both  parties  regretted  the  ill-assorted 
match.  • 

With  the  exception  of  a  tour  to  Flanders  and  to  France, 
in  the  hope  of  obtaining  a  commission  to  paint  for  the  Gal- 
lery of  the  Louvre,  Vandyck  continued  to  reside  in  England 
till  his  death  in  the  winter  of  1641.  The  events  of  the  Civil 
War,  added  to  repeated  attacks  of  gout,  so  shattered  his 
health  that  he  did  not  survive  his  forty-second  year.  He 
was  buried  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral.  Young  as  he  was,  the 
list  of  his  works  surprises  us  with  his  industry.  He  has  left 
forty  pictures  at  St.  Petersburg,  forty-one  at  Munich,  nine- 
teen at  Dresden,  twenty-two  at  Windsor,  thirty  or  more  at 
Vienna,  besides  those  in  Madrid,  Paris,  Berlin,  Brussels,  and 
other  public  and  private  collections.  Among  the  portraits 
which  we  must  yet  notice  are  "  A  Burgomaster  of  Antwerp 
and  his  Wife,"  in  the  Pinakothek,  Munich ;  a  "  Bishop,"  at 
Antwerp  ;  "  Mrs.  Margaret  Lemon,"  at  Windsor ;  a  "  Gen- 
eral," supposed  to  be  Wallenstein,  at  Vienna;  a  "  Countess 
of  Oxford,"  at  Madrid ;  a  "  Husband  "  and  "  Wife,"  and 
"Don  Francisco  de  Mo^ada  on  Horseback,"  in  the  Louvre ; 
and  "Jean  de  Montfort,"  and  the  magnificent  equestrian 
figure  of  the  "  Emperor  Charles  V.,"  in  the  Uffizi,  Florence. 
His  own  likeness,  a  fair,  refined,  though  somewhat  weak  face, 
with  gray  eyes,  brown  hair,  and  pointed  beard,  hangs  in  the 
Louvre.  He  is  dressed  in  green,  and  his  person  is  slender 
and  graceful. 

Contemporary  with  Vandyck,  among  the  artists  of  Bel- 
gium, we  find  a  painter  of  very  different  method  and  tempera- 


LATER  FLEMISH  AND  GERMAN  PAINTING, 

o^o 

ment.  David  Teniers  the  younger,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1610, 
was  as  renowned  for  genre  scenes  as  his  countryman  for  por- 
traits.  His  father  had  been  an  artist  of  considerable  repute  in 
the  same  class  of  subjects,  as  is  seen  by  his  pictures  in  many 
German  galleries,  particularly  those  of  Vienna  and  Dresden. 
The  elder  Teniers  died  in  Antwerp  in  1649,  after  having 
carefully  instructed  his  son,  who  was  also  so  much  influenced 
by  Rubens  that  he  is  commonly  considered  his  follower, 
though  not 'his  pupil.  David  Teniers  married  into  the 
Breughel  family,  and  shared  the  taste  of  his  brothers-in-law 
for  delineations  of  low  life,  peasant-groups,  merry-makings, 
guard-rooms,  tavern-interiors,  and  the  like  ;  but  he  is  distin- 
guished above  all  other  genre  painters  for  the  perfect  truth 
and  force  of  his  details,  the  marvelous  accuracy  of  his  exe- 
cution, his  graphic  and  satirical  touch,  and  his  brilliant,  solid, 
and  well-balanced  coloring.  There  was  not  an  atom  of 
poetry  in  his  nature ;  but  he  was  keenly  realistic,  and  none 
could  more  powerfully  depict  the  homely  or  humorous  side 
of  life.  Such  artists  always  address  an  appreciative  public ; 
and  we  therefore  need  not  wonder  at  the  growth  of  Teniers's 
reputation,  nor  at  his  enjoying  the  continued  patronage  of 
the  Regent  of  the  Netherlands  and  the  Archduke  of  Austria, 
until  his  death  in  1694. 

His  acquaintance  was  everywhere  courted  ;  the  crowned 
heads  of  Europe  were  eager  to  secure  his  works ;  he  accumu- 
lated great  wealth,  and  established  himself  handsomely  in  the 
castle  of  Trois  Tours,  between  Antwerp  an'd  Mechlin.  There 
he  labored  with  so  much  ease  that  he  often  completed  a  pict- 
ure between  dinner  and  bedtime !  His  paintings  are  gener- 
ally of  small  or  medium  size,  and  frequently  crowded  with 


3°4 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


figures ;  though  he  occasionally  attempted  a  subject  of  larger 
dimensions,  such  as  the  "  Italian  Fair  "  at  Munich,  and  the 
"  Rinaldo  and  Armida  "  at  Madrid.  He  boasted  that  two 
leagues  of  galleries  would  be  required  to  contain  all  his  pict- 
ures. Viardot  enumerates  twenty-three  at  Vienna,  twenty- 
three  at  Dresden,  sixty  at  Madrid,  forty-seven  at  St.  Peters- 
burg, fifteen  in  the  Louvre,  and  fourteen  at  Munich.  An 
"  Alchemist's  Laboratory  "  and  the  "  Temptation  of  St.  An- 
thony "  were  two  of  his  favorite  themes.  The  "  St.  An- 
thony "  he  repeated  many  times,  but  the  best  example  is  at 
Berlin.  "The  poor  saint  kneels,  full  of  anxiety,  before  his 
stone  altar,  the  corners  of  which  are  just  shooting  out  into 
heads  of  monstrous  beasts.  Beside  him  stands  a  devil,  in  the 
shape  of  a  Brabant  beauty,  holding  a  goblet  of  wine.  All 
kinds  of  imps,  some  in  the  shape  of  goats,  others  like  apes  or 
fishes,  are  twitching  at  his  garments ;  others,  again,  form  a 
circle,  and  appear  to  make  the  most  horrible  uproar  by  sing- 
ing, screaming,  or  croaking !  In  the  air  above,  all  is  wild 
tumult.  There  are  two  knights,  who  ride  on  fishes,  and  tilt 
with  one  another ;  one  is  a  bird,  cased  in  an  earthen  mug  for 
a  coat  of  armor,  and  with  a  candlestick,  with  a  burning  light 
in  it,  stuck  in  his  head  instead  of  a  helmet.  He  pierces  the 
other  combatant  with  a  long  hop-pole  through  the  neck ;  and 
this  knight,  who  resembles  a  dried  frog,  seems  to  set  up  a 
fearful  scream,  as  he  tosses  his  arms  aloft.  All  sorts  of  rep- 
tiles are  flying  and  creeping  about.  It  would  be  difficult  to 
match  the  mad  conceits  and  the  wild  genius  of  this  picture." 
It  is  only  approached  in  kind,  though  not  in  degree,  by  some 
of  his  grotesque  incantation-scenes. 

To  the  admirers  of  his  style  we  may  commend  his  "  Play- 


LATER  FLEMISH  AND   GERMAN  PAINTING.       3O5 

ers  at  Backgammon,"  and  "  Dives,  ou  le  Mauvais  Riche,"  in 
the  London  Gallery ;  the  "  Peter  denying  Christ,"  and  the 
"  Prodigal  Son,"  in  the  Louvre ;  a  "  Rural  Wedding,"  "  Italian 
Fair,"  and  "  Feast  of  Masked  Monkeys,"  at  Munich;  the 
"  Sacrifice  of  Isaac,"  at  Vienna ;  some  "  Village  Festivals,"  at 
Madrid ;  and  the  "  Archers  of  Antwerp,"  and  a  "  Kitchen 
Scene,"  at  St.  Petersburg;  as  well  as  the  " Knife-Grinder," 
"  The  Jealous  Wife,"  "The  Fishers,"  and  a  few  animal  pict- 
ures. 

The  talents  of  Teniers  were  never  transmitted  either  to 
his  children  or  pupils.  His  name  practically  closes  the  art- 
history  of  the  Netherlands ;  though  the  same  genre  subjects, 
monotonously,  carelessly,  or  vulgarly  treated,  long  prevailed, 
and  are  still  popular.  Two  other  artists  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  Philippe  de  Champagne  (1602-1674)  and  Anton 
Franz  van  der  Meulen  (1634-1690),  are  frequently  classed 
with  the  French  school ;  for,  though  both  were  born  in  Brus- 
sels, both  resided  most  of  their  years  in  France,  and  have 
left  their  principal  works  in  the  Louvre.  Philippe  de  Cham- 
pagne, who  became  attached  to  the  Jansenist  party  of  Paris, 
was  an  ardent  Port  Royalist  and  a  good  portrait-painter. 
We  may  also  examine  in  the  Louvre  some  of  his  historical 
and  sacred  pieces,  such  as  the  "  Scenes  from  the  Life  of  St. 
Mary  of  Egypt ;  "  but  he  is  more  celebrated  for  his  likenesses 
of  the  Arnauld  family  and  his  portraits  of  the  nuns  of  Port 
Royal.  Van  der  Meulen,  who  married  the  niece  of  the 
French  court  painter  Le  Brun,  was  highly  esteemed  by  Louis 
XIV.,  whom  he  accompanied  in  his  campaigns,  and  whose 
conquests,  including  his  Flemish  victories,  he  has  perpetu- 
ated on  canvas.  These  representations,  which  combine  land- 


3o6  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

scapes,  portraits,  pageantries,  and  battles,  are  preserved  in 
twenty-three  pictures  in  the  Louvre.  "  The  Entrance  of 
Louis  XIV.  and  Marie  The'rese  into  Arras  "  is  decidedly  the 
finest.  Four  others,  still  illustrating  the  exploits  of  Louis 
XIV.,  may  be  found  at  Munich. 

Germany  furnished  through  the  eighteenth  century  but 
short  records  of  any  notable  painters.  Balthasar  Denner,  of 
Hamburg  (1685-1749),  should  be  mentioned,  not  so  much  for 
original  genius  as  for  his  excessively  patient,  toilsome,  and 
accurate  finish.  His  works  can  bear  inspection  with  a  mi- 
croscope ;  for  he  "  copies  with  scrupulous  fidelity  every  un- 
dulation, every  tint,  even  the  slightest  down  on  the  skin  ;  he 
makes  a  hair  seem  round,  and  gives  the  perspective  of  the 
slightest  wrinkle."  He  confined  himself  usually  to  busts  or 
heads  of  aged  people ;  though  he  has  also  left  a  very  few 
family  groups  and  miniatures,  both  in  oil  and  water-colors. 
One  of  his  critics  explains  the  venerable  and  almost  de- 
crepit appearance  of  his  heads  by  the  supposition  that,  how- 
ever young  may  have  been  his  sitters  when  he  began  their 
portraits,  they  must  certainly  have  grown  gray  and  infirm 
before  the  laborious  task  could  be  concluded  !  Curious  ex- 
amples of  his  busts  may  be  studied  at  Dresden,  Munich,  Vi- 
enna," Berlin,  and  Hampton  Court. 

Christian  Dietrich,  born  at  Weimar,  in  1712,  bears  no  com- 
parison with  his  predecessors ;  but  he  was  a  clever  imitator, 
a  versatile  and  rapid  painter,  and  became  skillful  and  popular. 
His  "  Wandering  Musicians  "  is  in  the  London  Gallery,  and 
a  "  View  of  Tivoli "  at  Berlin ;  but  the  greater  part  of  his 
works,  numbering  about  fifty,  will  be  found  at  Dresden. 
Among  these  are  a  small  but  pleasing  "Madonna  and  Child," 


LATER  FLEMISH  AND  GERMAN  PAINTING.       3O- 

a  "  Shepherd  and  Shepherdess,"  and  "  Convent  Scenes  "  of 
an  old  capuchin  and  a  prior  examining  a  letter.  His  etch- 
ings  are  admirable  but  rare.  He  received  the  appointment 
of  painter  to  the  court  of  Saxony,  and  died  in  1774. 

Anton  Raphael  Mengs,  so  highly  praised  by  Winckel- 
mann,  so  over-estimated  in  life,  and  so  honored  in  death,  was 
born  at  Aussig,  in  Bohemia,  1728.  His  father  painted  on 
enamel,  and  was  so  determined  that  his  son  should  be  a  gen- 
ius that  he  named  him  after  Correggio  and  Raphael,  gave 
him  no  other  plaything  than  a  pencil,  and  forced  him  to  draw 
sixteen  hours  a  day.  At  twelve  years  of  age  he  took  him  to 
Rome,  and  shut  him  up  week  after  week,  in  the  Vatican,  to 
study  the  old  masters,  with  only  a  loaf  of  bread  and  a  pitcher 
of  water  for  his  meals.  It  certainly  indicated  great  talent,  as 
well  as  great  amiability  of  disposition,  that,  after  this  severe 
training,  the  young  Raphael  did  not  abhor  the  very  mention 
of  art ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  he  attained  such  proficiency 
that  orders  and  honors  were  lavished  upon  him  from  the 
courts  of  Rome,  Poland,  Spain,  and  Germany.  He  was  soon 
made  painter  to  Augustus  III.  of  Saxony ;  an  office  which  he 
only  accepted  on  condition  of  being  permitted  to  continue 
his  residence  in  Italy.  He  executed  some  fine  frescoes  in 
Rom.e,  on  the  ceilings  of  the  pope's  apartments,  and  the  ceil- 
ing of  the  Villa  Albani,  representing  "Apollo  en  Parnassus 
with  the  Muses  ;  "  and  was  given  the  title  of  "  Knight  of  the 
Golden,  Spur."  His  style  is  classical,  but  cold.  A  royal  and 
most  flattering  invitation  brought  him  to  Madrid,  where  he 
remained  a  long  time,  and  left  some  excellent  works.  He 
painted  but  slowly,  as  he  devoted  much  time  and  labor  to 
drawing  from  models  and  studies  from  the  antique.  His 


3o8 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


learning  was  profound,  and  he  composed  valuable  treatises 
on  painting  in  various  languages.  When  his  death  occurred, 
in  Rome,  in  1779,  elaborate  monuments  were  ordered  for 
him  by  the  embassador  of  Spain  and  the  Empress  of  Russia. 
A  few  of  his  works  exist  in  the  Louvre,  and  at  Florence, 
Munich,  and  Berlin.  The  Dresden  Gallery  holds  only  three 
of  his  paintings,  but  has  several  admirable  pastels,  particu- 
larly the  "  Cupid  sharpening  his  Arrow,"  and  the  portraits  of 
Mengs  and  his  father. 

His  beautiful  pupil,  Angelica  Kaufmann,  is  claimed  by 
the  English  school  on  account  of  her  reception  and  employ- 
ment in  Great  Britain,  where  she  was  made  a  member  of  the 
Royal  Academy,  and  requested  to  assist  in  a  proposed  deco- 
ration of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral.  Born  at  Chur,  in  1742,  and 
educated  by  an  artist-father,  she  was  highly  accomplished  in 
painting,  music,  and  the  languages,  and  early  attracted  notice 
by  her  loveliness  and  her  talents.  The  father  and  daughter 
wandered  through  Italy,  from  Naples  to  Rome,  and  from 
Bologna  to  Venice,  and  came  in  1766  to  England,  where  she 
lived  for  seventeen  years,  and  was  admired  by  Sir  Joshua 
Reynolds,  yet  made  a  most  unfortunate  marriage  with  a  per- 
son purporting  to  be  a  Swedish  nobleman,  but  who,  after 
securing  his  bride,  was  proved  to  be  merely  a  valet  who  had 
stolen  his  master's  letters,  and  introduced  himself  into  society 
as  the  real  Count  Horn.  She  separated  from  the  impostor, 
but  after  his  death  married  a  Venetian  painter  named  Anto- 
nio Zucchi,  and  her  subsequent  life  was  passed  in  Rome, 
where  she  was  greatly  beloved  and  appreciated.  She  died  in 
1807,  and  was  buried  with  a  public  procession  of  the  nobility, 
the  literati,  and  the  young  girls  of  the  city.  She  painted  not 


LATER  FLEMISH  AND  GERMAN  PAINTING.        ,Og 

only  portraits,  but  large  historical  or  allegorical  subjects,  such 
as  "Religion  attended  by  the  Virtues,"  in  the  National  Gal- 
lery, London.  "  Leonardo  da  Vinci  dying  in  the  Anns  of 
Francis  I."  is  one  of  her  masterpieces.  But  her  most  charm- 
ing pictures  are  the  "  Vestal  Virgin  "  and  "  Sibyl,"  at  Dres- 
den, and  her  own  portrait  in  the  Uffizi,  Florence.  She  lacks 
force  and  correctness,  and  her  likenesses  are  often  suggestive 
of  studies  in  pastel ;  but  she  is  graceful  and  poetic  in  senti- 
ment, and  an  agreeable  colorist. 

Reaching  thus  the  limits  of  the  eighteenth  century,  we 
shall  contemplate  a  brilliant  revival  of  German  art  in  the 
works  of  Cornelius,  Overbeck,  and  Kaulbach ;  but  these  im- 
portant masters,  so  familiar  to  the  lovers  of  contemporary 
painting,  we  reserve  for  a  more  modern  chapter. 


CHAPTER   XIV. 

PAINTING     IN     HOLLAND. 

ALL  Dutch  painting  may  of  course  be  regarded  as  an  off- 
shoot from  the  early  Flemish  school,  though  the  talent  which 
vitalized  the  slowly-growing  art  of  Holland  was  of  much 
later  date  than  the  time  of  the  Van  Eycks.  The  practical 
and  peaceful  burghers  of  this  little  country  were  not  startled 
by  any  extraordinary  burst  of  genius  till  the  advent  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  when  Rembrandt  suddenly  made  them 
famous.  His  predecessors  may  be  easily  counted.  Albert 
van  Cutwater,  of  whom  we  have  no  pictures,  but  who  resided 
at  Haarlem  in  the  fifteenth  century,  was  the  founder  of  the 
Dutch  school;  while  his  pupil,  Gerard  van  Haarlem,  who 
died  early,  has  left  two  panels  of  the  "  Mourning  of  Christ," 
and  the  "  Remains  of  St.  John,"  now  in  the  Belvedere,  Vi- 
enna, as  well  as  two  or  three  others  at  Munich.  Dierick 
Bouts  or  Stuerbout,  also  of  Haarlem,  thought  to  be  the  im- 
mediate follower  of  Hubert  van  Eyck,  furnishes  examples  of 
greater  excellence.  His  coloring  is  soft  and  glowing;  his 
figures  stiff,  yet  correct  and  solemn,  and  his  landcsape  back- 
grounds admirable.  Some  of  his  altar-pieces  are  at  Berlin, 
Bruges,  and  Munich,  such  as  "  The  Gathering  of  Manna," 


PAINTING  IN  HOLLAND. 

o*  i 

and  "  Meeting  of  Abraham  and  Melchizedek,"  in  the  Pina- 
kothek. 

Cornelis  Engelbrechtsen,  born  at  Leyden,  in  1468,  was 
less  attractive.  The  Town-House  of  Leyden  still  possesses 
from  his  hand  a  large  altar-piece  with  wings,  of  poor  execu- 
tion, representing  the  "Crucifixion,"  with  its  symbolical 
types.  He  is  remembered,  however,  as  the  master  of  Lucas 
of  Leyden,  who  was  not  only  the  first  distinguished  Dutch 
painter,  but  the  successful  introducer  of  engraving  into  Hol- 
land, and  the  valued  friend  of  Albrecht  Barer  and  of  Holbein. 

Luc  Jacobez,  commonly  called  Lucas  of  Leyden,  was 
born  at  Leyden,  in  1494,  painted  well  at  the  age  of  twelve, 
and  engraved  on  copper  at  fourteen.  His  prints,  which 
number  one  hundred  and  seventy-four,  have  rendered  him 
celebrated  :  some  are  now  very  scarce  and  expensive,  par- 
ticularly the  "  Eulenspiegel,"  which  immortalized  a  popular 
clown  of  a  past  century.  "  The  Sleeping  Monk  killed  by  Mo- 
hammed," and  the  "  Dance  of  the  Magdalene,"  are  also  won- 
derfully fine  and  rare.  There  is  a  fantastic  and  whimsical 
element  in  many  of  these  engravings,  characteristic  both  of 
the  man  and  the  period,  which  is  almost  equally  visible  in  his 
panels,  and  shows  us  frequent  contrasts  of  serious  simplicity 
and  strange  buffoonery.  His  life  was  short  but  fertile.  Not 
many  of  his  genuine  paintings  can  be  discovered,  though  cata 
logue-makers  find  it  convenient  to  assign  early  Dutch  works 
to  his  authorship.  A  large  but  unpleasant  "  Last  Judgment " 
adorns  the  Town-Hall  of  Leyden,  smaller  pictures  are  at 
Munich,  and  a  portrait  of  the  Emperor  Maximilian  hangs  in 
the  Belvedere,  Vienna.  A  "  Pieta,"  in  the  tribune  of  Uffizi, 
Florence,  and  a  "  Deposition  from  the  Cross,"  at  Paris,  are 

21 


3I2 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


noticeable  as  specimens  of  his  graver  style.  Their  yellowish 
lights  and  deep-brown  shadows  may  be  effective,  but  not 
beautiful.  With  all  his  industry,  Lucas  had  a  keen  apprecia- 
tion of  the  pleasures  of  the  world,  and  his  biographers  give 
graphic  accounts  of  a  brilliant  tour  through  the  Netherlands 
in  company  with  the  Flemish  painter  Mabuse.  The  journey 
was  made  in  a  splendid  barge,  and  enlivened  by  banquetings 
and  revels.  Many  fellow-artists  welcomed  and  envied  the 
gay  travelers  ;  yet  it  has  been  supposed  that  Lucas  was  then 
poisoned  by  some  jealous  rival ;  for  on  his  return  home  he 
was  seized  with  a  severe  illness,  from  which  he  never  wholly 
recovered,  but,  after  lingering  six  years  upon  a  sick-bed,  died 
at  the  age  of  thirty-nine. 

Hans  Schoreel,  a  pupil  of  Mabuse,  born  in  1495,  was  at 
this  time  winning  reputation  at  Haarlem.  He  had  fallen  in 
love  during  his  early  years  with  the  beautiful  young  daughter 
of  a  painter,  and,  to  render  himself  worthy  of  her,  went  to 
study  under  Michael  Angelo.  But  he  staid  so  many  years 
in  Italy  that,  on  revisiting  his  native  land,  he  found  the  lady 
married,  and  was  obliged  to  console  himself  with  his  profes- 
sion. He  settled  at  Utrecht,  and,  with  the  exception  of  his 
matrimonial  disappointment,  led  a  prosperous  and  happy  life, 
dying  of  gout  in  1567.  The  zeal  of  the  Reformers  destroyed 
most  of  his  pictures,  but  a  "  Virgin  and  Child  "  is  in  the 
Town-Hall  of  Utrecht. 

His  pupil  Martin  Hemskerk,  or  Martin  van  Veen,  another 
most  unsuccessful  imitator  of  Michael  Angelo,  was  once  a 
favorite  in  Holland,  and  still  has  pictures  at  Delft  and  Haar- 
lem. But  the  name  of  Van  Veen  reminds  us  rather  of  Otto 
van  Veen,  the  instructor  of  Rubens,  born  at  Leyden,  1558. 


PAINTING  IN  HOLLAND.  ^ 

He  was  a  very  learned  and  accomplished  man,  though  a  very 
feeble  painter.  Six  of  his  allegorical  pictures,  representing 
the  "  Triumph  of  the  Catholic  Church,"  are  in  a  cabinet  of 
the  Munich  Gallery,  while  others  are  shown  at  Antwerp. 

The  close  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  opening  of  the 
seventeenth,  bring  us  fairly  into  the  departments  of  land- 
scape and  portrait  painting,  in  which  the  Dutch  were  soon  to 
rival  every  other  nation.  We  will  notice  a  few  of  these  early 
artists  before  we  attempt  a  sketch  of  Rembrandt,  who  proved 
himself  a  master  in  all  branches. 

Abraham  Bloemart,  who  was  born  at  Gorcum,  1567,  and 
died  at  Utrecht,  1647,  painted  history,  landscape,  and  animals, 
with  tolerable  fidelity  and  force  ;  but  was  excelled  by  Jan  van 
Goyen  and  Jan  Wynants,  both  born  about  1600,  and  sharing 
the  honors  of  being  considered  the  pioneers  of  Dutch  land- 
scape-painting. Both  were  eminently  truthful  in  their  copies 
of  Nature,  but  Van  Goyen's  pieces  are  somewhat  sad  and 
desolate,  while  the  coloring  of  Wynants  is  lighter  and  fairer. 
A  marvelous  advance  is  seen  in  the  works  of  Albert  Cuyp 
(1606-1667),  who  still  holds  his  rank  among  the  most  charm- 
ing of  all  landscape-painters.  His  father,  born,  like  himself, 
at  Dort,  had  been  an  artist  of  some  note,  and  a  pupil  of  Bloe- 
mart ;  but  the  son  gained  and  merited  the  title  of  the  Dutch 
Claude,  and  pleases  all  critics  by  his  lovely  effects  of  light 
and  atmosphere.  Sunny  mornings  and  misty  evenings  fasci- 
nate us  upon  his  canvas.  Often  he  introduces  figures  who 
ride  along  through  the  clear,  bright  fields,  with  a  life-like  en- 
joyment which  the  spectator  shares,  as  for  example  in  "  The 
Cavalier  "  of  the  Dresden  Gallery.  The  English  profoundly 
admire  Cuyp,  and  have  secured  many  of  his  pictures,  some 


314 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS   OF  PAINTING. 


of  which  may  be  seen  in  the  National  Gallery  and  in  the 
Dulwich  Collection.  "  The  Departure  "  and  "  The  Return  " 
are  in  the  Louvre ;  and  others,  scarcely  less  fine,  in  Munich. 
Only  a  few  are  left  in  Holland,  as  other  nations  have  been 
more  appreciative  than  his  own  countrymen.  Cuyp  some- 
times attempted  flower,  fruit,  "  still-life  "  pieces,  and  "  inte- 
riors ; "  but  his  peculiar  forte  is  so  decidedly  landscape  that 
we  need  not  pause  to  think  of  the  versatility  of  his  talents. 

The  brothers  Jan  and  Andries  Both,  of  Utrecht,  born 
about  1608  and  1610,  were  also  eminent  for  their  rural 
scenes,  and  have  bathed  their  pictures  in  the  same  rich  and 
melting  sunshine.  Their  coloring  is  usually  deeper  than  that 
of  Cuyp,  but  not  more  luminous.  Most  of  their  life  was 
passed  in  Italy,  though  their  best  paintings  are  in  the  Louvre, 
and  in  the  Dresden  and  other  German  galleries.  Andries  was 
drowned  at  Venice,  in  1645,  and  Jan  died  at  Utrecht  five 
years  afterward. 

The  faithful  imitation  of  Nature,  which  the  Dutch  have 
always  and  everywhere  required  as  the  first  element  of  suc- 
cess, was  peculiarly  developed  in  the  portraits  which  at  this 
epoch  came  greatly  into  demand.  We  shall  see  in  Dutch  and 
German  collections,  especially  at  Dresden,  many  curiously 
realistic  and  interesting  faces,  dating  from  1600  to  1650,  to 
which  we  find  the  name  of  Mierevelt  attached.  They  seem 
of  a  more  cultivated  and  intellectual  type  than  most  of  the 
sitters  of  Holbein  or  Pourbus ;  and  we  feel  a  strong  desire  to 
hear  something  of  the  history  of  these  men  and  women,  gen- 
erally past  middle  age,  who  look  at  us  with  such  life-like  in- 
tensity from  the  canvas.  Few  painters  are  more  vivid  than 
Mierevelt ;  extremely  realistic,  yet  not  commonplace  or  dis- 


ENTRANCE  TO  A  WOOD  (Both). 


P-3M- 


PAINTING  IN  HOLLAND.  3IS 

agreeable.  Little  is  known  of  him  personally,  except  that  he 
was  born  at  Delft,  in  1568,  and  is  said  to  have  executed  five 
thousand  portraits  !  His  son  Peter  imitated  his  style. 

Of  Frank  Hals  (1584-1666),  and  his  pupil  Adrian  Brau- 
wer,  we  have  more  definite  accounts.  Hals  was  celebrated  for 
his  bold,  vigorous,  and  expressive  portraits,  and  for  his  pict- 
ures of  archers  and  soldiery.  One  of  his  be.st  remains  is 
the  likeness  of  Descartes  in  the  Louvre.  A  large  "  Family 
Group  "  is  in  the  Munich  Gallery.  He  often  carried  his  free 
and  generous  living  to  dissipation  and  excess ;  and  so  ill- 
treated  his  pupil  Brauwer  that  he  ran  away  and  went  to  Am- 
sterdam and  Antwerp,  where  he  attracted  the  notice  of  Ru- 
bens, who  would  gladly  have  assisted  and  patronized  him, 
had  not  his  intemperate  habits  brought  him  to  an  early  grave. 
He  died  at  a  hospital  in  Antwerp,  in  1640. 

Gerard  Honthorst,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1592,  first  opened 
the  way  in  Holland  for  genre  scenes,  and  for  those  effects  of 
night-light  and  shadow  in  which  Rembrandt  was  soon  to 
excel.  He  went  to  Rome,  where  he  acquired  the  surname 
Gherardo  " detta  Notte"  Gerard  of  the  Night.  After  spend- 
ing some  years  in  Italy,  he  paid  a  short  visit  to  England,  and 
then  returned  home  to  become  the  painter  of  the  Prince  of 
Orange.  His  pictures  are  numerous  and  forcible.  Several 
striking  specimens  are  at  Munich,  especially  "  Cimon  nour- 
ished by  his  Daughter,"  and  the  "  Revels  of  the  Prodigal 
Son."  His  "  Deliverance  of  St.  Peter  by  an  Angel  "  is  also 
extremely  effective.  He  was  the  originator  of  a  favorite  sub- 
ject among  Dutch  artists — a  dentist  extracting  a  tooth  from  a 
roaring  patient.  In  Honthorst's  large  composition  at  Dres- 
den the  dentist  operates  upon  his  victim  by  candle-light. 


3I6  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

Rembrandt  van  Ryn,  the  pride  of  his  fatherland,  and  the 
"Shakespeare  of  Painting,"  was  born  at  Leyden,  in  1606. 
In  him  the  genius  of  Holland  culminated.  The  tendencies 
of  the  age  conspired  most  fortunately  to  develop  his  charac- 
ter. With  a  realistic  feeling  uncommonly  strong,  even  for  the 
North,  he  combined  a  romantic  depth  of  conception  which 
seized  not  uppn  form,  or  superficial  charm,  or  external  beau- 
ty, but  upon  the  innermost  nature  of  the  subject  to  be  por- 
trayed ;  so  that  he  gives  us  at  once  the  rudest  prose  and  the 
most  profound  poetry — but  a  poetry  which  would  never  have 
produced  an  adequate  result  had  it  revolved  within  the 
sphere  of  Italian  sentiment.  So,  too,  the  Protestant  element 
of  the  Netherlands,  which  often  turned  away  its  artists  from 
the  lovely  yet  conventional  representations  of  the  old  reli- 
gion, and  stripped  the  halo  of  sacredness  from  all  inferior 
merit,  often  leaving  it  stranded  among  the  lowest  haunts  of 
the  people,  worked  its  homely  enfranchisement  in  truth  and 
power  upon  the  earnest  soul ;  and  then  directed  its  attention 
to  the  essential  poetry  which  lies  at  the  root  of  holy  things, 
and  can  only  be  discerned  by  the  eyes  of  the  individual 
mind,  without  the  aid  of  traditional  spectacles.  What  a  man 
sees  thus  he  will  paint  or  speak  with  emphasis,  if  not  with 
grace,  as  did  Rembrandt. 

The  events  of  his  life, appear  to  have  been  imperfectly 
understood  by  most  biographers.  He  is  often  spoken  of  as 
having  been  born  in  an  old  mill,  married  to  a  peasant-girl, 
the  victim  of  poverty,  obscurity,  and  avarice,  with  the  dark 
shadows  of  his  style  reflected  in  his  life,  and  not  much  light 
in  his  death :  whereas  facts  really  show  us  that  his  parents 
were  citizens  of  Leyden,  in  easy  circumstances,  who  were 


PAINTING  IN  HOLLAND.  -„ 

able  to  send  him  to  a  Latin  school,  and  educate  him  in  art ; 
that  his  wife  "  Saskia  "  was  a  handsome  young  lady  of  good 
fortune,  and  of  a  noble  Friesland  family,  by  whom  he  had 
one  son  named  Titus ;  and  that  he  lived  comfortably,  and 
even  opulently,  at  Amsterdam,  having  gathered  around  him 
a  fine  collection  of  pictures,  casts,  and  antiquities,  which  were 
indeed  sold  and  dispersed,  owing  to  his  pecuniary  difficulties, 
after  Saskia's  death,  when  he  had  reached  the  age  of  forty- 
eight  or  forty-nine.  He,  however,  married  again ;  and  though 
his  later  years  were  spent  in  retirement,  and  entirely  devoted 
to  painting,  he  always  retained  his  artistic  reputation ;  and, 
dying  at  or  near  Amsterdam,  was  buried  in  the  cemetery  of 
the  Westerkerk.  A  statue  has  been  raised  to  him,  not  very 
far  from  the  small  house  which  is  said  to  have  been  his  last 
habitation. 

Not  only  the  Dutch  and  Germans,  but  foreign  judges 
of  all  nations,  have  ever  held  his  works  in  the  most  flattering 
estimation.  French  critics  vie  with  each  other  in  his  praise, 
in  language  which  often  sounds  extravagant;  and  English 
writers  exhaust  their  eulogies  upon  his  lights  and  shadows. 
This  point  of  chiaro-oscuro  is  his  strongest  side.  In  this 
respect  his  paintings  and  etchings,  for  he  was  as  wonderful 
an  engraver  as  a  painter,  will  always  be  unsurpassed.  Its 
peculiarity  consisted  in  a  concentrated  mass  of  light  in  one 
part  of  his  pictures,  and  an  overwhelming  and  effective  depth 
of  shadow  in  another.  Thus  we  find  at  the  present  day  per- 
sons who  profess  to  take  what  they  call  Rembrandt  photo- 
graphs— that  is,  photographs  in  which  one  side  of  the  face  is 
brought  out  in  very  brilliant  high  light,  while  the  remainder 
melts  into  unusually  dark  shade.  The  management  of  this 


3I8  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

peculiarity  was  with  Rembrandt  entirely  different  from  that 
of  the  later  Italian  •'  Tenebrosi."  In  the  first  case  it  was 
attractive  and  mystical,  in  the  second  repulsive  and  vulgar. 
In  his  earlier  works  it  does  not  appear  so  fully  developed  as 
in  the  maturity  of  his  genius.  Many  of  these  earlier  works 
may  be  studied  at  the  Hague,  where  we  probably  meet  his 
most  youthful  authentic  painting,  dated  1631,  and  entitled 
"  The  Presentation  in  the  Temple."  There,  too,  is  preserved 
one  of  his  greatest,  though  not  most  agreeable,  compositions 
— the  "  Lesson  in  Anatomy,"  which  shows  the  dissection  of 
a  corpse  by  Professor  Tulp,  who  lectures  and  explains  to 
seven  other  figures  grouped  around.  The  power  of  this  piece 
is  in  its  graphic  portraiture  and  its  natural  expressions  and 
attitudes.  His  portraits  are  everywhere  marvels  in  art.  They 
unite  utter  realism  with  a  look  as  if  the  soul  of  the  sitter  had 
risen  for  a  moment  to  the  surface,  and  was  just  about  to  tell 
its  history  from  the  speaking  eyes  and  lips — yet  after  all  had 
suddenly  retreated,  and  left  you  in  doubt  as  to  what  it  had 
meant  to  say.  This  curious  suggestiveness  is  a  feature  in  all 
Rembrandt's  best  efforts.  He  presents  to  us  his  own  portrait 
twenty-seven  times,  in  all  phases  and  ages ;  and  also  that  of 
Saskia,  whom  he  loves  to  adorn  with  rich  dresses,  jewels,  and 
drooping  chains,  as  we  see  her  in  the  Dresden  Gallery,  hold- 
ing in  her  hand  a  flower;  but  old  men  nnd  women,  with 
piercing,  deep-set  eyes,  wrinkles,  and  strongly-marked  traits, 
were  the  most  frequent  subjects  of  his  skill.  One  such  old 
woman  in  every  collection  is  almost  invariably  catalogued  as 
his  "  Mother."  His  flesh-tints  were  transparent,  yet  very 
yellow,  and  his  shadows  intensely  brown.  "  He  occasionally 
finished  the  hair  and  beard  with  the  handle  of  the  brush.  If 


THE  RAISING  OF  LAZARUS  (Rembrandt). 


p.  318. 


PAINTING  IN  HOLLAND.  - 

my  one  wished  to  examine  closely  his  bold  juxtapositions  of 
color  and  thickly-laid  high  lights,  he  would  push  him  back, 
saying  that  '  paint  was  unwholesome,  and  not  to  be  smelled 
at."' 

But  it  is  at  Amsterdam  that  we  must  seek  for  Rem- 
brandt's chef-d^wre,  in  the  large  composition  entitled  "  The 
Xight-Watch."  This  famous  piece  is  really  a  day-scene, 
though  the  strong  shadows  and  vivid  illumination  produce 
the  illusion  of  artificial  light.  Twenty-three  life-sized  figures, 
in  civic  armor,  are  marching  through  the  streets,  while  a 
young  girl  is  in  the  midst  of  them,  with  a  fowl  suspended 
from  her  belt.  Standards,  colors,  arms,  and  drapery,  balance 
each. other  in  brilliant  and  harmonious  disorder;  and  their 
glow  and  gloom  make  this  pictured  band  of  soldiers  the 
greatest  attraction  of  the  Museum. 

In  the  treatment  of  sacred  themes  we  find,  however,  the 
clearest  evidence  of  Rembrandt's  singular  power.  He  was 
very  fond  of  Old  Testament  scenes,  with  their  Oriental  cos- 
tumes, romantic  localities,  and  significant  attitudes.  The  per- 
sonages and  the  accessories  he  copied  indeed  from  the  most 
real  and  homely  models,  not  caring  in  the  least  for  beauty  or 
ordinary  sentiment,  but  rendering  them  with  a  sort  of  wild 
invention,  fantastic  and  original.  Such  are  his  "  Sacrifice  of 
Isaac,"  at  St.  Petersburg;  his  "Angel  Raphael  leaving  the 
Family  of  Tobit,  and  soaring  upward  into  a  Shining  Celestial 
Atmosphere  ;  "  his  "  Saul  and  the  Witch  of  Endor ; "  his 
"  Blinding  of  Samson,"  at  Cassel ;  his  "  Sacrifice  of  Manoah," 
at  Dresden ;  and  another  picture  in  the  same  gallery,  former- 
ly known  as  "  The  Banquet  of  Ahasuerus,"  but  now  believed 
to  be  "  Samson  among:  the  Philistines.!'  Yet  his  characteris- 


320 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


tics  are  even  more  apparent  in  the  events  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment history.  The  "  Resurrection  of  Lazarus ;  "  the  "  Descent 
from  the  Cross,"  at  Munich;  a  "Crucifixion,"  in  dark  and 
stormy  weather;  an  "Entombment,"  in  the  obscurity  of  a 
deep  vault ;  a  "Nativity,"  illuminated  by  the  pale  glow  of  a 
lamp;  a  "Resurrection, "lit  by  one  single  ray  in  the  darkness 
of  the  night ;  and  an  "  Ascension,"  where  Christ  lights  up 
the  whole  scene  with  the  brilliancy  emanating  from  himself, 
are  all  examples  of  his  method.  But  nothing  more  strikingly 
illustrates  the  working  of  his  mind  than  the  sketch  in  bistre 
for  a  "  Supper  at  Emmaus,"  which  is  instanced  by  Charles 
Blanc  —  a  common  room;  a  small,  rude  table;  ordinary 
chairs  for  seats ;  the  two  disciples  no  way  above  the  level  of 
average  Dutch  peasants.  But  the  figure  of  Christ  has  dis- 
appeared; his  vacant  chair  is  filled  with  dazzling,  unutter- 
able radiance;  and  the  disciples  are  seized  with  a  sublime 
terror ;  "  for  in  the  spot  where  they  had  just  heard  his  voice 
and  broken  bread  with  him,  they  see  a  supernatural  light 
which  has  replaced  the  vanished  God."  The  artist  has  left 
us  a  similar  picture  in  the  Louvre,  yet  with  a  different  con- 
ception. In  the  painting  "  the  Lord  is  there,  with  a  space  of 
light  before  him;  but  in  the  etching  he  is  gojie." 

In  contrast  to  these  it  must  be  acknowledged  that  his 
mythological  compositions,  such  as  the  "  Rape  of  Ganymede," 
are  often  grotesque  and  coarse,  while  no  one  could  be  very 
favorably  impressed  with  the  well-executed  painting  in  the 
Dresden  Gallery  representing  himself  seated,  and  holding  a 
drinking-glass,  with  his  wife  upon  his  knee.  St.  Petersburg, 
Munich,  Berlin,  and  Vienna,  have  treasured  up  his  works. 
In  the  Louvre  are  "  Tobit  and  the  Angel,"  and  two  portraits 


PAINTING  IN  HOLLAND.  32I 

of  himself,  one  exceedingly  handsome;  and  several  very 
small  but  very  valuable  pictures,  in  addition  to  two  or  three 
of  larger  size  but  not  of  greater  merit.  The  National  Gallery, 
London,  owns  a  splendid  portrait  of  a  Rabbi,  an  "  Adoration 
of  the  Shepherds,"  the  "Woman  taken  in  Adultery,"  a  "De- 
scent from  the  Cross,"  and  others.  Some  of  his  finest  land- 
scapes are  at  St.  Petersburg.  His  engravings  and  sketches, 
about  four  hundred  in  number,  display  the  same  mysterious 
effects  of  light  and  shade  as  his  paintings,  and  are  now  rare 
and  costly.  Many  of  them  may  be  examined  in  the  British 
Museum. 

Though  none  of  Rembrandt's  pupils  could  reproduce  his 
style,  yet  he  instructed  some  clever  artists  who  did  credit  to 
his  training.  Govaert  Flinck  (1615-1660),  who  also  imitated 
Murillo,  not  only  succeeded  in  portraits,  but  executed  an 
"  Assembly  of  the  Civic  Guard  "  for  the  Amsterdam  Gallery; 
an  "  Expulsion  of  Hagar,"  for  Berlin;  and  a  "  Guard-Room," 
and  "  Isaac  blessing  Jacob,"  for  Munich.  Gerbrandt  van  der 
Eckhout  (1621-1674)  aspired  to  compose  and  color  like  his 
master — selecting,  like  him,  from  the  history  of  the  Bible; 
while  Ferdinand  Bol,  of  Dortrecht  (1609-1681),  often  rises 
into  independent  vigor.  Both  his  portraits  and  historical 
pieces  are  worthy  of  commendation,  especially  the  "  Joseph 
presenting  Jacob  to  Pharaoh,"  and  "  David's  Letter  concern- 
ing Uriah,"  at  Dresden.  Solomon  Konincx  (1609-1674)  may 
not  have  been  in  Rembrandt's  studio,  but  was  one  of  his 
most  able  followers.  His  wrinkled  faces  and  aged  heads  are 
very  powerful;  while  his  "Reading  Hermit,"  at  Dresden,  who 
sits  holding  an  open  book,  might  be  attributed  to  a  far  more 
celebrated  hand. 


322 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


But  of  all  the  pupils  or  successors  of  Rembrandt  none  has 
become  so  famous  as  Gerard  Dow,  or  Dou.  He,  too,  was  a 
native  of  Leyden,  born  in  1613.  His  father,  who  was  a 
glazier,  placed  him  at  the  age  of  fifteen  with  Rembrandt,  from 
whom  he  learned  the  management  of  light  and  shade,  and 
harmonious  blending  of  colors.  His  practical  and  unpoetic 
nature  made  no  fantastic  uses  of  this  knowledge,  but  turned 
it  to  the  delineation  of  quiet  and  sober  scenes,  full  of  homely 
but  never  vulgar  realism,  and  minute  details.  So  patient,  so 
laborious,  yet  so  facile  and  pleasing  in  coloring,  he  is  truly  a 
marvel  of  application  and  skill.  A  friend  once  complimented 
the  execution  of  a  broomstick  in  one  of  his  pictures,  but  the 
indefatigable  artist  answered  that  he  had  yet  three  days'  work 
to  do  upon  it.  So  particular  was  he  that  no  speck  of  dust 
should  ever  defile  his  painting  that  he  is  said  to  have  pur- 
posely worked  in  a  studio  which  opened  upon  a  ditch.  He 
left  two  hundred  pictures,  which  are  now  exceedingly  valu- 
able. All  are  small  in  size,  and  contain  but  few  figures. 
They  are  to  be  found  in  nearly  every  extensive  gallery.  His 
masterpiece  is  "  The  Woman  with  the  Dropsy  "  ("  La  Femme 
hydropigtte"),  in  the  Louvre.  A  sick  lady  sits  in  an  arm- 
chair ;  her  daughter  kneels  before  her,  weeping  and  kissing 
her  hand.  A  servant  gives  her  medicine ;  and  somewhat  in 
front  stands  the  physician  who  turns  to  the  window  and  ex- 
amines a  bottle.  Next  to  this  may  be  ranked  the  "  Praying 
Hermit,"  of  Dresden,  and  the  "  Evening  School,"  in  the  Ant- 
werp Museum,  where  the  gleam  of  candle-light  upon  the 
children's  faces  is  most  exquisitely  rendered.  In  the  same 
Museum  he  is  further  represented  by  some  excellent  por- 
traits. His  old  women  are  true  to  the  life.  He  frequently 


PAINTING  IN  HOLLAND. 

«JZ3 

painted  his  own  likeness,  as  at  Brussels,  Dresden,  Florence, 
Paris,  and  London.  He  lived  till  1680,  and  time  by  no 
means  lessened  his  powers.  "La-Femme  hydropique  "  was 
completed  at  the  age  of  sixty-five. 

Gerard  Terburg  (1608-1681)  was  another  cheerful  genre 
painter,  who  introduces  us  to  comfortable  and  pleasant  apart- 
ments, where  well-dressed  ladies  fill  their  elegant  domestic 
sphere.  No  one  ever  quite  equaled  him  in  the  finishing  of 
silk,  satin,  arid  .velvet.  His  finest  picture  is  the  "  Paternal 
Admonition,"  at  Amsterdam,  repeated  by  himself  in  the  Mu- 
seum of  Berlin.  It  is  better  known  as  "  The  Satin  Gown," 
from  the  white  and  glistening  robe  of  the  somewhat  portly 
daughter  who  stands,  with  her  back  toward  the  spectator,  to 
listen  to  her  father's  mild  rebuke.  Terburg's  works  are  not 
so  numerous  as  those  of  Dow,  and  are  almost  as  highly 
prized,  though  there  is  little  soul  or  intellect  beneath  his 
shining  draperies.  "  The  Music-Lesson,"  "  The  Gallant  Offi- 
cer," and  other  pictures  in  the  Louvre,  are  good  illustrations 
of  his  style. 

Bartholomew  van  der  Heist  was  a  very  different  and  most 
vigorous  artist.  He  was  born  at  Amsterdam,  1613,  and  died 
in  the  same  city,  1670.  It  is  there  he  must  be  studied,  for  his 
best  works  have  never  been  removed  to  other  collections. 
Many  critics  consider  him  the  ablest  portrait-painter  of  Hol- 
land. His  most  remarkable  production  is  the  "  Banquet  of 
the  Civic  Guard  of  Amsterdam,  on  the  Solemnization  of  the 
Peace  of  Westphalia."  Twenty-five  figures,  the  size  of  life, 
each  a  portrait,  are  seated  at  a  long  table,  in  careless,  easy 
attitudes,  with  splendid  accessories  of  gay  banners,  glittering 
armor,  and  rich  drinking-vessels.  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  re- 


324 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


marked  of  it,  "This  is  perhaps  the  finest  portrait-picture 
which  exists."  There  is  another  celebrated  scene  in  the 
Amsterdam  Museum,  called  "  The  Distribution  of  Archery 
Prizes,"  which  is  repeated,  in  much  smaller  dimensions,  in 
the  Louvre. 

Following  the  course  of  the  seventeenth  century,  we  come 
to  a  number  of  Dutch  genre  painters  whom  we  can  but 
briefly  notice.  All  whom  we  shall  mention  are  more  or  less 
famous  in  their  peculiar  line  ;  all  are  highly,  appreciated  by 
those  who  delight  in  faithful  and  simple  representations  of 
ordinary  life,  and  rendering  of  minute  details ;  all  can  bear 
the  closest  scrutiny,  and  are  sometimes  even  improved  by  a 
microscope;  while  all  have  left  us  pictures  wonderfully  fin- 
ished ;  though  the  marvel  is,  that  many  of  them  should  ever 
have  been  begun  ! 

Adrian  van  Ostade,  bom  at  LUbeck  in  1610,  but  settled  at 
Amsterdam,  is  very  favorably  known,  both  in  Holland  and 
England.  He  was  fond  of  peasantry,  interiors,  rural  con- 
certs, taverns,  and  vine-wreathed  cottages ;  and  painted 
nearly  four  hundred  genre  scenes,  scattered  liberally  through 
public  and  private  collections.  His  brother  and  pupil,  Isaac 
van  Ostade,  who  is  less  in  merit,  gives  us  similar  subjects ; 
and  also  made  a  specialty  of  winter-scenes,  and  the  frozen 
canals  of  Holland. 

Gabriel  Metzu,  born  in  Leyden,  1615,  sometimes  attempt- 
ed allegorical  and  historical  compositions,  but  was  far  more 
successful  in  genre,  in  which  he  showed  himself  one  of  the 
most  pleasing  masters.  His  coloring  is  pure  and  rich,  and 
his  execution  delicate  yet  free.  His  pictures  command  high 
prices  in  England  and  Germany.  Eight  are  in  the  Louvre, 


PAINTING  IN  HOLLAND.  „- 

among  them  "  The  Vegetable  Market  at  Amsterdam,"  and  a 
"  Music-Lesson  ;  "  seven  at  Dresden,  especially  "  The  Poul- 
terers "  and  "  The  Lace-Maker ;  "  while  Berlin  and  Munich 
also  possess  his  works.  He  was  an  agreeable  delineator  both 
of  high  and  low  life.  The  date  of  his  death  is  uncertain — 
probably  not  till  after  1667. 

His  friend  Jan  Steen,  a  gay  and  able  artist,  born  at  Ley- 
den,  1636,  principally  devoted  himself  to  portraying  the  pleas- 
ures of  eating  and  drinking,  in  pictures  distinguished  by  easy 
and  rapid  touch,  attractive  coloring,  and  unusual  dramatic 
effect.  He  so  delighted  in  wine  that  he  himself  kept  a  tav- 
ern, and  has  left  behind  him  an  unenviable  reputation  for 
drunkenness  and  riot.  Yet  he  must  have  been  slandered ;  for 
before  his  death,  in  1679,  he  had  certainly  painted  more  than 
two  hundred  pictures,  which  required  some  soberness  and 
industry.  The  best  of  these  is  "  The  Representation  of  Hu- 
man Life,"  at  the  Hague,  which  apparently  makes  the  whole 
business  of  man  to  consist  in  opening  and  eating  oysters,  an 
occupation  which  all  the  twenty  figures,  dispersed  in  various 
positions  over  the  canvas,  are  eagerly  pursuing.  At  the 
Louvre  he  has  only  a  "  Flemish  Festival,"  larger  than  ordinary 
genre  scenes ;  at  Munich,  a  "  Physician  visiting  a  Lady ;  "  at 
St.  Petersburg,  a  "  Game  of  Backgammon  ;  "  an  "  Alchemist  " 
in  a  private  Venetian  gallery ;  the  "  Feast  of  St.  Nicholas," 
and  his  own  family,  at  Amsterdam ;  with  numberless  "  Peasant 
Groups  "and  "Ale-Houses"  throughout  Germany,  Holland, 
and  England. 

Frans  van  Mieris  (1635-1681)  was  a  less  clever  but  more 
aristocratic  painter.  He  was  a  native  of  Delft,  and  a  pupil 
of  Gerard  Dow,  who  complimented  him  by  calling  him  the 


326 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


prince  of  his  pupils.  His  finish  is  as  exquisite  as  a  minia- 
ture, and  many  of  his  pictures  are  kept  under  glass.  He 
preferred  small  subjects  from  high  life,  especially  elegant  la- 
dies, the  texture  of  whose  resplendent  dresses  he  gives  with 
the  utmost  fidelity  and  delicacy.  Several  of  his  works  are  in 
the  Ufiizi,  Florence ;  fifteen  at  Dresden,  including  a  "  Tink- 
er," a  "  Young  Girl  playing  the  Lute,"  and  "  The  Painter's 
Studio  and  Portrait ; "  fourteen  at  Munich,  particularly  the 
"  Lady  fainting  "  and  "  Woman  with  a  Parrot ;  "  and  four  at 
the  Louvre,  of  somewhat  less  merit.  His  son  William,  best 
represented  at  Dresden,  imitated  his  father,  but  could  not 
equal  him  in  talent. 

Gottfried  Schalken  (1643-1706),  another  pupil  of  Gerard 
Dow,  and  a  resident  of  Dort,  was  especially  noted  for  small 
candle-light  scenes.  His  masterpiece  is  "The  Ten  Virgins," 
at  Munich.  "  They  are  seen  by  night,  hurrying  to  the  door 
of  a  palace.  On  the  side  of  the  foolish  virgins  the  only 
light  is  from  a  waning  moon.  The  other  side  of  the  picture 
is  lighted  by  the  procession  of  the  wise  virgins  with  their 
naming  lamps." 

Caspar  Netscher,  who  was  born  at  Heidelberg,  1636,  and 
died  at  the  Hague  in  1684,  was  also  a  master  of  genre;  and 
is  seen  to  the  greatest  advantage  in  the  Dresden  Gallery, 
where  we  may  find,  among  other  works,  "  A  Young  Man 
writing  a  Letter,"  which  is  thought  to  be  his  own  portrait ; 
and  "  The  Music-Lesson,"  a  subject  dear  to  Dutch  fancy, 
which  he  has  repeated  at  the  Louvre.  A  description  of  the 
latter  picture  will  serve  as  an  illustration  of  the  general  treat- 
ment adopted  for  such  a  scene  :  "  A  young  girl,  in  white 
satin,  is  seated  near  a  table  covered  with  a  rich  cloth,  taking 


PAINTING  IN  HOLLAND.  327 

a  lesson  of  a  music-master  who  is  smitten  with  her  beauty. 
He  presents  a  sheet  of  music  to  his  pupil,  and,  while  pointing 
out  with  his  finger  the  words  of  the  song,  declares  his  love, 
but  is  interrupted  by  a  little  page  who  noiselessly  advances, 
holding  a  violin."  Other  paintings  by  Netscher  are  at  Mu- 
nich and  Carlsruhe,  while  many  have  been  purchased  by 
English  connoisseurs. 

Peter  van  Hooghe,  who  dates  from  about  1635  to  1700,  is 
particularly  famous  for  his  sunshiny  and  brilliant  "interiors," 
warm  and  quiet  rooms,  whose  peaceful  inhabitants  seem  emi- 
nently comfortable.  His  brush  can  show  us  even  motes  in 
the  sunbeams.  Such  "  interiors  "  may  be  found  in  Amster- 
dam, the  Louvre,  St.  Petersburg,  and  Munich. 

Adrian  van  der  Werff,  born  in  a  village  near  Rotterdam, 
in  1659,  may  be  considered  as  the  last  of  this  class  of  artists. 
His  works  are  severely  criticised,  but  have  been  successful  in 
pleasing  the  popular  taste,  and  belong  to  all  large  galleries. 
He  was  partial  to  classical  and  sacred  subjects,  which  he  exe- 
cuted with  some  affectation,  but  with  the  utmost  delicacy  and 
ivory-like  polish.  His  technical  merits  are  great,  but  he 
lacks  expression.  An  entire  cabinet  is  devoted  to  him  in  the 
Munich  Pinakothek,  and  he  may  also  be  studied  at  Amster- 
dam, Dresden,  Berlin,  St.  Petersburg,  and  the  Louvre. 
Among  his  best  pictures  are  "  Abraham  sending  away  Ha- 
gar,"  "  The  Penitent  Magdalene,"  and  the  "  Adoration  of  the 
Shepherds."  He  died  at  Rotterdam,  in  1722,  after  a  long 
and  prosperous  career. 

The  landscape-painters  of  Holland,  who  succeeded  Cuyp 
and  have  given  such  deserved  reputation  to  Dutch  art,  now 

claim  consideration.     Their  name  is  legion,  but  a  judicious 
22 


328  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

selection  can  be  made  of  the  most  able  and  widely  known. 
At  the  head  of  these  stand  indisputably  the  two  Ruysdaels. 
Solomon,  the  elder,  born  at  Haarlem,  in  1610  or  1615,  was  an 
accurate  imitator  of  Nature,  but  it  was  the  Nature  of  his  own 
fatherland — straight  canals  and  peaceful  rivers,  bordered  by 
neat  houses  and  orderly  trees ;  his  brother  Jacob,  many  years 
his  junior,  looked  upon  the  same  scenery,  rendered  the  same 
landscapes,  but  threw  over  them  a  mystic  and  melancholy 

grace — 

"The  light  that  never  was  on  sea  or  shore, 
The  consecration,  and  the  poet's  dream." 

With  masterly  truth  of  delineation  he  could  portray  a  forest- 
glade,  sombre  and  solemn  with  its  dark-green  foliage,  its 
silent  pool,  or  overflowing  stream ;  or  a  wide  twilight  plain, 
across  whose  solitary  road  has  fallen  a  dead  and  withered 
tree;  or  a  wild  and  deep  ravine  down  whose  rocky  sides 
leaps  a  water-fall,  while  a  lonely,  ruined  castle  frowns  above  it 
on  the  height.  Every  stroke  is  simple,  yet  every  touch  effec- 
tive. No  accessories  are  employed,  and  none  are  needed. 
We  feel,  but  cannot  define,  the  pathos.  It  is  not  enough  to 
say  that  his  outlines  are  firm  and  correct,  his  sunshine  and 
shadows  powerfully  blended,  and  his  masses  of  foliage  rich, 
broad,  and  admirably  arranged ;  but  we  must  admit  that 
there  is  an  inner  sentiment  which  transfigures  these  details 
into  poetry.  Each  picture  is  an  elegy.  His  works  are  com- 
paratively numerous ;  over  one  hundred  of  them  having  been 
purchased  in  England,  mostly  by  private  collectors,  though 
a  few  are  in  the  London  Gallery.  Dresden,  however,  owns 
his  most  celebrated  pieces — the  desolate  "  Monastery  "  over- 
looking a  shadowy  river;  the  "Chase,"  or  stag-hunt,  in  a 


PAINTING  IN  HOLLAND.  . 

beech-forest;  and  the  "Cemetery  of  the  Jews,"  of  which 
Charles  Blanc  says :  "  Three  or  four  tombs,  composed  of  large 
stones,  hewn  in  rough  and  simple  style,  lie  scattered  in  dis- 
order at  the  foot  of  a  great  elm-tree.  The  unequal  and  stony 
soil,  rarely  pressed  by  the  foot  of  man,  is  covered  with  grass 
and  wild  plants.  In  the  background  is  seen  a  mass  of  tufted 
trees  surmounted  by  the  spire  of  a  church.  The  sky  is  dark ; 
but  a  splendid  and  glowing  sunbeam  breaks  between  two 
clouds,  and  falls  upon  this  field  of  death.  The  scene  might 
be  designated  'Life  and  Death,' but  the  splendor  of  this  light 
has  in  it  something  cold  and  wan  which  it  is  impossible  to 
define." 

Holland  has  allowed  most  of  Ruysdael's  best  landscapes 
to  pass  into  foreign  countries ;  though  Amsterdam  has  pre- 
served a  memorable  "  Water-fall,"  and  a  "  View  of  Bentheim 
Castle,"  one  of  the  artist's  favorite  studies.  The  Hermitage 
at  St.  Petersburg  has  fifteen,  and  Munich  nine  excellent  pict- 
ures ;  some  quite  large  in  size.  In  the  Louvre  he  is  not  well 
represented,  except  by  a  "Storm  at  Sea," where  the  wind 
sweeps  passionately  from  an  angry  sky  along  the  Dutch 
coast,  and  lashes  the  dark  waves  into  foam.  Vienna  possesses 
one  of  his  largest  and  most  extraordinary  landscapes,  called 
"  The  Forest."  Only  "  a  calm  sky  crossed  by  fleeting  clouds ; 
a  clump  of  high  trees  on  a  flat,  barren  country,  through  which 
a  pathway  winds,  cut  off  in  the  foreground  by  a  stream,  and 
losing  itself  in  the  distant  horizon  " — yet  none  but  Claude 
Lorraine  has  equaled  its  simple  vividness  and  suggestive 
charm. 

Before  the  death  of  Ruysdael,  in  1681,  his  friend  or  pos- 
sibly his  pupil,  Mindert  Hobbema,  was  industriously  pursuing 


33° 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


the  same  style.  His  treatment  of  foliage  and  the  arrangement 
of  his  foregrounds  may  equal  Ruysdael's ;  but  the  poetic 
sentiment  is  wanting,  though  his  coloring  is  more  brilliant 
and  cheerful.  Modern  judgments  are  kinder  to  him  than  the 
opinions  of  his  own  time;  for,  though  his  landscapes  were 
long  neglected,  they  are  now  very  valuable,  and  sell  for  four 
thousand  guineas.  England  has  secured  his  happiest  efforts, 
which  are  usually  warm,  sunny,  and  peaceful;  but  good  spe- 
cimens may  be  found  at  Berlin,  and  in  the  Belvedere,  Vienna. 

Artus  van  der  Neer  (1619-1683),  a  landscapist  of  the 
same  period,  also  succeeded,  though  in  a  much  more  limited 
range,  in  combining  Dutch  monotony  and  romantic  mystery. 
He  is  the  painter  of  moonlight,  twilight,  and  night-light ;  pale 
mists,  and  fantastic  fires.  In  the  London  Gallery  he  is  rep- 
resented by  an  "  Evening  Scene,"  and  a  "  River  Scene  by 
Moonlight ;  "  in  Dresden  by  "  Moonlight  Views ;  "  and  in  Ber- 
lin by  a  "  Conflagration  at  a  Dutch  Seaport." 

Nicholas  Berchem,  or  Berghem,  of  Haarlem  (1624-1683), 
began  to  paint  at  ten  years  old,  but  soon  found  it  necessary 
to  draw  inspiration  from  the  landscapes  of  Italy  instead  of 
the  scenery  of  Holland.  His  pastoral  pieces  in  the  German 
galleries  are  generally  Southern  in  character,  and  he  loved  to 
introduce  "  red  rocks,  blue  distances,  and  festooned  terraces." 
He  has  executed  in  the  Louvre  a  "  View  of  Nice,"  and  the 
"Port  of  Genoa;  "  but  his  "Crossing  the  Ford,"  "Milking  a 
Goat,"  and  "Landscapes  with  Cattle,"  better  exemplify  his 
style.  Sometimes  in  his  oil-paintings  or  etchings  he  passes 
to  quite  other  themes,  as  in  his  "  Boaz  and  Ruth,"  at  Amster- 
dam ;  or  "  A  Turk  talking  to  a  Woman,"  at  the  Hague. 

Another  Italianized  Dutchman  was  Hermann  van  Swane- 


PAINTING  IN  HOLLAND.  -„ 

velt,  a  native  of  Woerden,  but  a  pupil  of  Claude  Lorraine. 
He  did  not  profit  much  by  his  advantages,  for  his  coloring 
remained  cold,  and  his  manner  artificial;  but  he  is  highly 
praised  as  an  etcher  and  designer  of  Roman  views. 

Philip  Wouvermans,  born  at  Haarlem  in  1620,  was  a  more 
picturesque  and  prolific  artist.  Between  seven  and  eight 
hundred  spirited  paintings  are  ascribed  to  him,  though  all 
cannot  be  genuine.  Many  are  battle  and  hunting  scenes, 
filled  with  cavaliers,  dogs,  and  horses.  His  masterpieces  are 
the  "  Coup  de  Pistolet,"  at  Buckingham  Palace,  and  a  "  Hawk- 
ing Party,"  at  Amsterdam.  Thirteen  of  his  works  are  in  the 
Louvre,  particularly  "  The  Riding-School ;  "  forty-nine  at  St. 
Petersburg,  including  "  The  Burning  Mill ;  "  a  "  Stag-Hunt," 
and  sixteen  others,  are  at  Munich;  "The  Hay-Cart,"  at  the 
Hague  ;  and  sixty-four  at  Dresden.  It  is  said  that  he  invari- 
ably placed  a  white  horse  in  every  picture,  as  may  be  seen 
even  in  an  "  Annunciation  to  the  Shepherds,"  where  the  steed 
and  his  rider  watch  the  angelic  messengers  from  an  adjacent 
hill.  Time  and  study  greatly  improved  his  tone  and  touch ; 
but  he  died  before  attaining  his  fiftieth  year. 

The  mention  of  Paul  Potter  recalls  at  once  the  animals 
and  pastures  for  which  he  is  famous.  Few  Dutch  painters 
enjoy  more  general  and  practical  renown.  He  was  born  at 
Enkhuysen,  in  1625,  passed  his  youth  at  the  Hague,  and 
finally  removed  to  Amsterdam,  where  he  died  in  1654.  Sheep' 
and  cattle,  grassy  meadows,  and  calm  pools,  all  reposing  in 
pleasant  atmosphere,  are  his  most  congenial  subjects.  He 
loved  animals,  not  only  on  canvas,  but  in  farms  and  fields ; 
familiarized  himself  with  their  habits,  and  carefully  copied 
their  traits,  down  to  the  falling  of  a  hair,  or  the  point  of  a 


332 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


horn,  with  the  most  effective  coloring,  and  the  most  entire 
accuracy.  He  might  represent  them  gigantic  in  size,  but  he 
never  slighted  their  finish.  The  "  Young  Bull,"  of  the  Hague, 
painted  at  twenty-two,  immediately  established  his  reputa- 
tion. This  immense  creature,  perfectly  portrayed,  stands 
proudly  in  the  foreground,  while  a  shepherd,  three  sheep,  and 
a  cow,  complete  the  group.  A  "  Bear-Hunt,"  of  exaggerated 
proportions,  is  shown  in  the  Amsterdam  Museum  5  and  smaller 
and  milder  pieces  from  his  hand  are  tolerably  plentiful  in 
England  and  Germany.  The  Hermitage  at  St.  Petersburg 
contains  nine  of  his  best  pictures,  especially  "  The  Condem- 
nation of  Man  by  the  Tribunal  of  Animals,"  and  a  large 
landscape,  in  which  a  rural  barn-yard  appears  to  have  been 
let  loose,  and  mixed  in  sunny  confusion  with  goats  and  asses, 
wayfarers  and  horses. 

'  The  same  department  of  art  is  further  illustrated  by 
Adrian  van  de  Velde,  of  Amsterdam  (1639-1672).  Like  Pot- 
ter, he  scarcely  lived  to  reach  the  prime  of  manhood,  yet 
left  nearly  two  hundred  paintings  and  twenty-six  engravings. 
His  animals  and  landscapes  were  excellent ;  his  human  figures 
correctly  drawn ;  and  the  tone  of  his  pictures  clear,  bright, 
and  calm,  with  fine  aerial  perspective.  His  large  Brabant 
landscape,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Antwerp,  contains  his  own 
and  his  wife's  portrait.  Good  specimens  of  his  ability  exist 
in  Dresden  and  in  the  Louvre ;  but  the  name  of  Van  de 
Velde  is  better  known  through  Willem,  the  unrivaled  marine 
painter. 

These  brothers  Van  de  Velde  were  the  sons  of  an  earlier 
artist  of  Leyden,  who  also  maderfc  specialty  of  marine  paint- 
ing, and  was  patronized  and  pensioned  in  England,  but 


PAINTING  IN  HOLLAND.  333 

whose  memory  is  now  merged  in  that  of  his  children,  Willem 
and  Adrian.  Willem  was  born  in  Amsterdam,  in  1633.  He 
soon  displayed  his  partiality  for  the  sea,  and  followed  his 
father  to  England,  where  there  was  a  constant  demand  for 
their  pictures,  which  even  now  bring  enormous  prices.  Every 
phase  of  the  ocean  has  been  represented  by  his  brush — tem- 
pest and  quiet ;  clouds  and  sunshine ;  full-rigged  vessels, 
and  shining  cities  on  receding  coasts.  He  also  excelled  in 
sea-fights ;  and  exhibited,  with  cool  impartiality,  the  naval 
victories  of  the  English  over  the  Dutch  quite  as  vividly  as 
those  of  the  Dutch  over  the  English.  In  the  National  Gal- 
lery, London,  hang  nine  of  his  works.  The  Louvre  has  a 
"  Calm,"  small,  but  very  fine  in  perspective  and  finish ;  the 
Hague  and  Amsterdam  possess  several,  including  a  well- 
chosen  view  of  the  latter  city;  and  a  "  Storm  "  and  "  Calm  " 
are  in  one  of  the  cabinets  of  the  Munich  Gallery.  .  He  died 
in  1707,  while  his  rival,  Ludolf  Backhuysen,  born  at  Embden, 
in  1631,  was  also  winning  fame  at  Amsterdam. 

Backhuysen  is  said  to  have  commenced  his  career  as  a 
writing-master,  and  to  have  subsequently  given  lessons  in 
marine  drawing  to  Peter  the  Great  of  Russia.  He  delighted 
in  shipping,  and  introduces  frigates  and  fleets  into  most  of 
his  compositions.  His  coloring  is  generally  opaque  and 
dark,  as  he  preferred  rough  seas  and  gloomy  skies  to  serener 
and  transparent  air.  His  pictures,  as  well  as  those  of  Van 
de  Velde,  adorn  the  most  important  public  and  private  gal- 
leries of  England ;  while  the  "  Return  of  William  of  Orange," 
at  the  Hague  ;  the  "  Embarkation  of  Jan  de  Witt,"  at  Am- 
sterdam ;  a  "  View  of  the  Port  of  Amsterdam,"  at  Vienna ; 
and  the  "  Seaport  of  Antwerp,"  at  Munich,  may  be  specially 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

enumerated  among  the  variety  of  his  works.  His  death,  at 
Amsterdam,  in  1709,  closes  the  list  of  Dutch  marine  masters, 
and  brings  us  to  a  brief  notice  of  the  delineators  of  archi- 
tecture and  still-life. 

As  painters  of  buildings,  we  may  therefore  first  mention  the 
two  Hendricks  van  Steenwyck,  father  and  son,  who  were  pe- 
culiarly successful  in  depicting  interiors  of  churches,  with  van- 
ishing perspective  and  rich  ornamental  accessories,  as  may 
be  observed  at  Vienna  and  in  the  Louvre.  Peter  Neefs 
(1570-1638)  continued  the  same  architectural  style,  some- 
times adding  a  torchlight  illumination  to  increase  the  effect. 
He,  too,  is  represented  in  the  Louvre,  though  he  may  be 
more  favorably  judged  by  a  "Night  Interior,"  at  Munich,  and 
a  "  Gothic  Church,"  at  Vienna.  But  the  most  picturesque  of 
these  "  little  masters  "  is  doubtless  Jan  van-  der  Heyden 
(1637-1712),  who  devoted  himself  to  ''''exteriors"  in  which  he 
sets  before  our  eyes  "  every  stone  in  a  wall,  every  tile  on  a 
roof,  every  paving-stone  in  a  street,  every  leaf  on  a  tree !  " 
Thus  his  works,  which  number  about  one  hundred  and 
sixty,  and  are  dispersed  through  Holland,  Germany,  and 
England,  give  us  most  faithful  views  of  many  Dutch  towns, 
market-places,  and  gardens,  pleasing  in  color,  and  miniature- 
like  in  finish. 

Another  father  and  son,  Jan  Baptist  Weenix  (1621-1660) 
and  Jan  Weenix  the  younger  (1644-1719),  both  of  Amster- 
dam, are  celebrated  for  their  birds  and  animals,  living  and 
dead.  The  elder  Weenix  also  rendered  larger  subjects,  as 
in  his  "  Knife-Grinder  "  and  "  Young  Girl  asleep,"  at  Mu- 
nich; but  the  younger  is  known  by  his  cocks,  partridges,  hares, 
and  other  game,  especially  the  "  Pheasant  "  at  the  Hague. 


PAINTING  IN  HOLLAND, 

33;> 

Both  have  pictures  in  Holland,  Dresden,  Munich,  and  the 
Louvre. 

Their  pupil,  Melchior  Hondekoeter,  of  Utrecht  (1636- 
1695),  may  be  called  the  painter  of  the  poultry-yard.  Though 
descended  from  the  Marquis  of  Waterloo,  his  artistic  ambi- 
tion did  not  soar  above  hens  and  ducks,  except  possibly  to 
rise  on  rare  occasions  to  a  peacock.  He  is  of  course  highly 
esteemed  in  his  native  land,  and  an  occasional  swan  or  turkey 
of  his  creation  has  strayed  as  far  as  Paris  and  St.  Petersburg. 
Willem  Kalf,  of  Amsterdam  (1630-1693),  was  an  enthusiast  for 
kitchen-scenes,  into  which  he  infused  as  much  poetry  as  the 
nature  of  the  case  would  permit.  Pots,  pans,  vases,  vegeta- 
bles, and  crockery,  attest  his  skill. 

Among  the  more  modest  but  more  interesting  painters  of 
flowers  and  fruit,  David  de  Heem,  of  Utrecht  (1600-1674), 
occupies  the  first  rank.  His  plants,  blossoms,  fruit,  and  in- 
sects, are  familiar  to  travelers  in  Northern  Europe ;  while  his 
plates,  and  glass  or  crystal  vessels,  are  remarkably  well  done. 
Cornells  de  Heem,  his  son,  imitated  him  in  the  same  genre, 
as  did  afterward  Jan  van  Huysum,  of  Amsterdam  (1682- 
1749),  whose  pictures  of  bouquets,  vases,  and  birds'-nests, 
are  particularly  pretty,  and  are  eagerly  purchased  for  large 
sums.  Rachel  Ruysch,  daughter  of  an  anatomical  professor 
of  Amsterdam,  has  almost  equal  reputation  for  flower-paint- 
ing, and  drew  and  colored  with  a  precision  and  fidelity 
which  would  put  the  modern  proficients  in  this  branch  of  art 
to  the  blush.  Bidding  farewell  to  her  floral  beauties,  we 
abandon  Protestant  Holland  for  fervent  Spain. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

PAINTING     IN     SPAIN. 

THE  Spanish  school  of  painting,  so  restricted  both  in 
its  artistic  and  geographical  limits,  so  intense  in  its  expres- 
sion, and  so  peculiar  and  national  in  its  characteristics, 
ranks  next  to  the  Italian  and  German  in  point  of  time, 
and  vies  with  the  German  in  importance.  Fortunately  for 
the  public,  the  only  two  of  its  painters  extensively  known  are 
the  very  two  who  give  us  the  essence  of  Spanish  genius ;  so 
that  Murillo  and  Velasquez  can  well  interpret  to  those  who 
have  never  visited  Madrid  or  Seville  the  art  of  a  country 
where  romance  and  Asceticism  meet  in  a  strange  embrace. 
No  school  of  painting  is  so  distinctly  recognizable,  because 
so  uniform,  as  that  of  Spain.  Its  grand  features  are  religious 
enthusiasm  and  passionate  sensuousness,  combined  with  a 
singular  realism.  As  Taine  observes  :  "  The  Spanish  paint- 
ers put  before  our  eyes  the  type  of  their  race ;  a  dry,  ner- 
vous animal,  with  firmly-knit  muscles,  hardened  by  his  burn- 
ing suns,  and  the  north  wind  of  his  sierras ;  dark,  austere ; 
boiling  with  suppressed  passions,  and  ardent  with  interior 
fire." 

Classic  art  has  ever  been  a  stranger  in  the  land.  Studies 
from  real  life,  either  in  the  portraits  of  its  grandees  or  its 


PAINTING  IN  SPAIN. 

picturesque  peasantry,  have  been  almost  the  only  variations 
from  severe  or  poetic  religious  representations.  The  Church 
has  held  full  sway  over  the  art  of  Spain,  and  her  power  has 
been  exercised  with  a  rigorous  hand.  Nor  could  this  power 
have  left  such  universal  impress,  had  not  the  hearts  of  the 
people  seconded  its  authority.  Most  of  the  painters  were 
fervent  to  fanaticism.  A  state  of  inspired  ecstasy  was  their 
highest  personal  aspiration,  as  well  as  a  fitting  subject  for  the 
brush.  Their  pictures  are  suggestive  of  auto-da-fts,  and  still 
exhale  an  aroma  of  the  Inquisition.  For  the  Inquisition, 
which  regulated  the  domestic  as  well  as  the  public  concerns 
of  the  Spaniards,  had  its  own  idea  of  the  mission  and  limits 
of  art,  and  most  actively  took  it  upon  itself  to  see  that  such 
mission  should  be  fulfilled.  The  proper  instruction  of  the 
masses  was  considered  its  first  object.  "  For  the  learned  and 
the  lettered,"  says  an  author  in  the  reign  of  Philip  IV., 
"  written  knowledge  may  suffice ;  but  for  the  ignorant  what 
master  is  like  painting  ?  They  may  read  their  duty  in  a  pict- 
ure, although  they  cannot  search  for  it  in  books."  For  this 
reason  scenes  from  the  life  of  Christ  and  of  the  saints,  but 
more  especially  of  the  Virgin,  were  multiplied.  Praying  and 
ecstatic  monks,  in  every  stage  of  devotion  and  rapture,  were 
displayed  in  sombre  yet  glowing  colors  to  popular  admiration. 
All  this  was  to  be  done  with  the  most  rigid  decorum  and 
modesty.  No  loosely-robed  Madonnas  or  unclad  Magda- 
lenes  were  ever  allowed  to  profane  the  public  eye.  Every 
scrap  of  nudity  was  strictly  forbidden.  Even  the  feet  of  the 
Virgin  could  not  be  naked  ;  and  Murillo  himself  dared  not 
sin  against  such  a  rule.  While  avoiding  the  unpoetical 
attribute  of  shoes,  he  has  always  contrived  to  conceal  the 


338 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


feet  in  clouds  or  drapery.  The  penalty  for  disobedience  in 
such  matters  was  excommunication,  a  fine  of  fifteen  hundred 
ducats,  and  a  year's  exile ;  though  a  slighter  punishment  was 
inflicted  upon  an  indiscreet  student  who  had  depicted  the 
Virgin  in  a  wide-hooped  petticoat !  As  may  be  inferred  from 
such  restrictions,  the  knowledge  of  anatomy  was  limited  in 
the  extreme,  but  a  special  grace  and  facility  in  painting  dra- 
pery became  a  characteristic  of  the  school.  Numerous  ar- 
tistic questions  were  gravely  considered  by  the  Inquisition, 
pondered  by  the  painter,  and  finally  decided  by  a  celestial 
communication  to  some  artist  or  saint.  The  problem,  for  in- 
stance, whether  the  devil  should  be  represented  with  horns, 
could  only  be  settled  on  the  authority  of  a  vision  of  St. 
Teresa !  A  tail  was  allowed  him,  on  the  theory  of  general 
probabilities.  Sometimes  the  Virgin  herself  appeared,  and 
directed  in  what  dress  she  should  be  painted.  The  blue  and 
white  which  have  become  her  traditional  colors,  through  the 
usage  of  Murillo  and  painters  of  similar  subjects,  were  re- 
vealed as  her  own  chosen  robes  to  Donna  Beatrice  de  Silva, 
a  Portuguese  nun,  who  founded  the  Order  of  the  Immaculate 
Conception. 

The  early  art  of  Spain  shows  us  no  such  clear  and  gradual 
dawn  as  we  may  trace  in  Italy.  Up  to  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, only  a  very  few  MSS.  reward  the  search  of  the  investi- 
gator. One  of  these,  a  missal  of  the  tenth  century,  is  in  the 
Library  of  Madrid,  "adorned  with  illuminations  and  rude 
portraits  of  ancient  kings."  Another,  preserved  in  England, 
and  dating  from  the  twelfth  century,  is  an  illumination  of 
some  of  the  writings  of  St.  Jerome.  On  one  of  its  pages  is 
a  representation  of  the  rich  man  Dives,  holding  two  cornu- 


PAINTING  IN  SPAIN.  339 

copias  as  symbols  of  abundance.  A  blue  Beelzebub,  spotted 
with  green,  and  another  violet-colored  demon,  are  harpooning 
him,  while  two  serpents  bite  his  arms,  and  two  toads  his  feet. 
Mention  is  made  of  some  ancient  wall-paintings,  said  to  have 
existed  in  1600,  in  the  church  of  St.  Peter,  in  the  city  of  Cor- 
dova, and  supposed  to  have  been  executed  before  the  inva- 
sion of  the  country  by  the  Mohammedans.  In  a  convent  of 
Seville  is  preserved  a  portrait  of  St.  Ferdinand  III.,  of  the 
early  part  of  the  thirteenth  century,  "dark  and  dingy  in 
color,  and  ornamented  with  gilding."  About  the  middle  of 
that  century,  a  Spanish  painter,  named  Pedro,  appears  to 
have  migrated  to  England,  where  he  attached  himself  to  the 
court  of  Henry  III.,  at  the  moderate  wages  of  sixpence  a 
day;  while  in  the  year  1291  a  certain  Rodrigo  Este"ban  is 
recorded  as  painter  to  King  Sancho  IV. 

From  this  time  to  the  sixteenth  century,  Cean  Bermudez, 
the  Spanish  art  historian,  gives  a  list  of  twenty-five  painters, 
the  most  skillful  of  whom,  however,  was  an  Italian  named 
Stamina,  born  in  1354,  and  a  pupil  of  Antonio  Veneziano. 
About  1390  the  Archbishop  of  Toledo  caused  the  cathedral 
cloisters  "  to  be  painted  in  the  style  of  Giotto,"  with  groups 
of  burning  heretics  particularly  specified  among  the  subjects. 
But  these  were  all  effaced  a  hundred  years  ago,  to  make  room 
for  modern  frescoes. 

In  the  fifteenth  century  distinct  schools  of  painting  began 
to  be  known  in  Spain.  Toledo  took  the  lead ;  then  followed 
Seville,  Madrid,  and  Valencia.  But  the  school  of  Toledo 
was  afterward  merged  in  that  of  Madrid,  and  Valencia  in 
that  of'Seville.  At  Seville  appeared,  in  1454,  Sanchez  de  Cas- 
tro, who  painted  a  gigantic  "  St.  Christopher,"  in  the  church 


340 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


of  St.  Julian  ;  and,  in  a  convent  near  Seville,  an  "  Annuncia- 
tion," where  the  Virgin  held  in  her  hand  a  rosary  and  a  pair 
of  spectacles.  But  his  works  may  be  considered  as  extinct. 
The  sixteenth  century  was  the  heroic  age  of  Spain.  The 
reign  of  Charles  V.  opened  both  Italy  and  Flanders  to  his 
subjects,  and  the  wonderful  creations  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci, 
Michael  Angelo,  and  Raphael,  were  to  be  seen  in  primeval 
freshness.  Spanish  artists  flocked  to  Rome  to  study  under 
its  eminent  masters ;  and  painters  from  Italy  and  the  Nether- 
lands, attracted  by  tales  of  royal  munificence,  brought  their 
pictures  and  their  pencils  to  the  Spanish  court.  Among 
them  was  Pedro  Campana,  a  Fleming,  whose  "  Descent  from 
the  Cross,"  at  Seville,  so  impressed  Murillo  that  he  desired 
to  be  buried  before  it. 

At  this  time,  the  native  schools  began  to  assume  charac- 
ter and  importance.  Luis  de  Vargas,  born  about  1502,  in  Se- 
ville, was  the  first  artist  of  merit  in  that  city  of  whose  labors 
posterity  is  able  to  judge.  He  was  peculiarly  austere  and 
devout  in  his  life,  and  kept  by  his  bedside  a  coffin  in  which 
he  was  wont  to  lie  down  and  meditate  on  death.  Being  of 
this  disposition,  it  naturally  followed  that  he  gave  his  entire 
attention  to  sacred  subjects.  He  spent  twenty-eight  years  in 
Italy,  and  has  the  credit  of  being  one  of  the  first  to  teach  his 
countrymen  the  true  method  of  oil  and  fresco  painting;  but 
his  knowledge  of  such  artistic  secrets  could  not  have  been 
very  thorough,  for  the  frescoes  which  he  executed  with  great 
industry,  and  which  gained  him  at  the  time  much  reputation, 
were  so  little  able  to  withstand  the  attacks  of  decay  that 
they  are  now  almost  entirely  obliterated.  His  few  remaining 
works  must  be  studied  in  the  cathedral  of  Seville.  The 


PAINTING  IN  SPAIN. 

34* 

finest  is  entitled  "  The  Temporal  Generation  of  our  Lord." 
The  holy  Child  lies  in  the  lap  of  his  mother ;  a  procession  of 
his  ancestors  throng  around  in  adoration.  Adam  is  kneeling 
conspicuously  in  the  foreground,  and  one  of  his  legs  is  so 
well  painted  that  from  it  the  picture  has  been  called  "  La 
Gamba." 

Vicente  de  Joanes,  or  Vicente  Juan  Macip,  often  called 
Juan  Joanes,  was  born  near  the  beautiful  city  of  Valencia,  in 
1523,  and  may  be  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  Valencian 
school.  Like  other  artists  of  that  day  he  dedicated  his  pen- 
cil wholly  to  the  service  of  the  Church,  and  prepared  himself 
for  his  work  by  fasting,  confession,  and  the  reception  of  the 
Eucharist.  But  in  talent  he  was  far  superior  to  his  prede- 
cessors or  contemporaries.  The  influence  of  the  locality  in 
which  he  lived,  with  its  sunny  climate,  soft  fields,  and  brill- 
iant skies,  so  different  from  the  colder  landscapes  of  Castile, 
blended  with  his  own  pure  taste  to  produce  warmth  and 
splendor  of  color  with  vivid  expression  and  grace  of  design. 
The  Spaniards  are  fond  of  calling  him  their  Raphael ;  but 
though  he  had  the  opportunity  to  study  Raphael's  master- 
pieces in  Italy,  he  is  thought  to  have  been  himself  the  pupil 
of  Giulio  Romano.  His  works  are  rare,  except  in  Valencia 
and  Madrid.  As  a  portrait-painter  he  excelled ;  and  one  of 
his  finest  existing  efforts  is  a  most  admirable  portrait  of  Don 
Luis  de  Castelvy,  in  the  Madrid  Gallery.  At  Madrid  is  also 
to  be  found  a  series  of  six  pictures  on  the  "  Life  and  Martyr- 
dom of  St.  Stephen,"  with  a  particularly  good  figure  of  Saul 
the  persecutor — a  subject  which  could  certainly  have  been 
studied  from  real  life  in  Spain.  At  Valencia  he  painted  a  very 
celebrated  picture  for  the  Jesuits,  called  "La  Purissima," 


342  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

modeled  upon  a  vision  of  his  confessor,  which  was  endowed 
with  miraculous  powers,  and  widely  engraved.  But,  accord- 
ing to  Stirling,  it  utterly  disappeared  during  the  War  of 
Independence.  In  the  cathedral  still  remains  a  "  Baptism  of 
Christ ;  "  and  in  the  sacristy  is  a  "  Good  Shepherd,"  with  the 
lamb  upon  his  shoulder — a  subject  entirely  neglected  in  pre- 
vious art  since  the  days  of  the  Catacombs.  Indeed,  the  great 
merit  of  Joanes  is  the  beautiful  and  touching  conception  of 
Christ  which  he  embodied,  particularly  in  his  frequently- 
repeated  pictures  of  "  The  Last  Supper,"  the  best  of  which  is 
in  the  church  of  St.  Nicholas,  Valencia.  It  is  small  in  size, 
only  four  feet  wide  by  two  high,  but  is  exquisite  in  detail. 
Joanes  died  at  Bocairente,  leaving  behind  him  an  artist  son, 
Juan. 

While  Joanes  was  pursuing  his  pious  labors,  far  from  the 
atmosphere  of  the  court,  Alonzo  Berruguete,  a  native  of 
Castile,  born  in  1480,  was  obtaining  great  celebrity  as  archi- 
tect, painter,  and  sculptor,  to  Charles  V.  He  had  visited  Rome 
with  Michael  Angelo  in  1504,  and  after  an  absence  of  fifteen 
or  sixteen  years  returned  to  his  own  land,  to  be  called  by  his 
countrymen  the  Michael  Angelo  of  Spain.  This  title  must 
have  referred  to  the  variety  rather  than  to  the  brilliancy  of 
his  acquirements.  The  remains  which  he  has  left  behind  him 
are  principally  in  decorative  architecture  and  statuary,  some 
of  which  may  be  seen  at  Toledo.  He  died  rich,  and  was 
magnificently  buried  at  the  king's  expense. 

One  of  the  chief  merits  of  Charles  V.  was  his  liberal 
patronage  of  Titian,  many  of  whose  works  he  added  to  his 
treasures.  The  emperor,  in  his  enthusiasm  for  the  artist,  once 
remarked  that  Titian  was  worthy  of  being  served  by  Caesar. 


PAINTING  IN  SPAIN.  -., 

343 

It  is  now  ascertained  that  the  great  Venetian  did  not  himself 
visit  Spain,  but  was  present  at  Charles's  court  at  Augsburg, 
and  on  other  occasions  in  Italy,  where  he  painted  the  cele- 
brated portraits  which  now  adorn  the  Royal  Gallery.  The 
pictures  thus  brought  to  Madrid  aroused  boundless  admira- 
tion and  delight,  and  furnished,  especially  in  their  glowing 
color,  models  for  imitation  of  which  the  Spaniards  gladly 
availed  themselves.  Many  journeyed  across  the  sierras  to 
study  in  the  same  school ;  while  those  at  home  generally 
adopted  more  or  less  of  his  style.  Philip  II.  was  equally  ap- 
preciative of  Titian,  and  secured  his  services  for  the  Escurial, 
that  superb  palace  monastery  whose  erection  was  the  passion 
of  his  reign.  Flemish  and  Italian  artists,  among  whom  were 
Michael  Coxie  and  the  eccentric  Domenico  Theotocopuli, 
known  as  "  El  Greco,"  labored  with  assiduity  at  the  pictures 
and  frescoes  upon  its  walls ;  but  the  first  native  genius  sum- 
moned to  assist  in  the  undertaking  was  Luis  Morales,  born 
at  Badajoz  about  1509,  and  usually  surnamed  "  The  Divine  " 
— why,  it  is  difficult  to  conjecture,  unless  for  the  very  devout 
nature  of  his  subjects ;  certainly  not  from  his  treatment  of 
them.  He  expresses  the  extreme  of  religious  woe,  and  the 
depth  of  doleful  desolation.  Crucifixions,  Ecce  Homos,  and 
Mater  Dolorosas,  were  his  chosen  themes.  No  cheerful  line 
was  ever  drawn  by  his  pencil.  But  he  succeeded  in  suggest- 
ing the  sorrowful  soul  beneath  the  worn  and  haggard  features, 
and  his  coloring  sometimes  attained  a  sober  richness.  He 
always  painted  on  panel  or  copper,  and  finished  his  pictures 
with  exceeding  care  and  minuteness.  They  are  now  scarce, 
and  highly  prized.  The  principal  are  at  Madrid,  especially  a 
"  Christ  crowned  with  Thorns,"  and  "  The  Saviour's  Circum- 
23 


344 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


cision,"  remarkable  for  the  fine  heads  of  the  taper-bearing 
maidens.  To  him  is  ascribed  in  the  Louvre  a  picture  of 
"  Christ  fainting  beneath  the  Cross,"  whose  authenticity  has, 
however,  been  questioned.  Morales  died  in  1586,  at  Badajoz, 
where  the  street  in  which  he  lived  is  named  in  his  honor. 

Alonzo  Sanchez  Coello  may  be  styled  the  first  great 
Spanish  portrait-painter.  He  was  court-painter  to  Philip  II. 
about  1570,  and  was  much  beloved  by  his  royal  master.  His 
paintings,  mostly  portraits,  are  in  the  Gallery  of  Madrid. 

King  Philip's  favor  was  shared  by  Juan  Fernandez  Nava- 
rette,  commonly  called  "  El  Mudo,"  "  the  dumb  painter."  He 
was  born  at  Logrono,  in  1526,  and  became  deaf,  after  a  severe 
illness,  at  three  years  of  age,  in  consequence  of  which  he 
never  learned  to  speak.  His  family  were  wealthy,  and  gave 
him  a  liberal  education.  He  was  sent  to  study  art  in  Italy, 
and  on  his  return  to  Spain  was  commended  to  the  king  as 
one  of  the  painters  for  the  Escurial,  where  his  brilliancy,  of 
color  caused  him  to  be  complimented  as  the  Spanish  Titian . 
Especially  worthy  of  notice  is  his  "  Nativity,"  which  contain-s 
so  fine  a  pastoral  group  that  the  picture  is  known  as  "  The 
Beautiful  Shepherds."  Navarette  died  at  Toledo,  in  1579. 

"  Pablo  de  Cespedes,  painter,  sculptor,  and  architect  ; 
poet,  scholar,  and  divine;  and  equally  an  ornament  of  the 
arts  and  literature  of  Spain,  was  born  at  Cordova,  in  1538." 
After  such  a  preamble,  the  reader  will  eagerly  inquire  where 
the  works  of  so  distinguished  an  artist  may  be  studied,  and  it 
is  melancholy  to  inform  him  that  scarcely  a  trace  of  all  this 
remains,  except  a  very  large  but  very  faded  "  Last  Supper," 
in  the  cathedral  of  Cordova.  His  works  are  supposed  to 
have  been  carried  away,  lost,  or  destroyed.  Yet  in  his  day 


PAINTING  IN  SPAIN. 

345 

and  generation  he  possessed  a  most  enviable  reputation. 
He  had  all  the  advantages  of  a  long  residence  in  Rome,  was 
perfectly  versed  in  modern  and  ancient  languages,  and  could 
even  converse  in  Hebrew  and  Arabic.  A  fragment  of  his 
"  Poem  on  Painting  "  has  been  preserved  to  us.  It  is  esteemed 
as  a  'classic  by  all  Castilian  critics,  and  a  few  of  its  quaint 
lines  may  possibly  he  interesting : 

"  His  pencils  first  demand  the  painter's  care, 

Of  various  size,  for  various  use  designed, 
And  formed  of  quills  in  which  the  silken  hair 

Of  sylvan  creatures  he  must  closely  bind. 
The  surly  wild-boar's  stubborn  back  is  rough 
With  store  of  bristles,  wiry,  long,  and  tough. 

"Next  from  the  sweet-pear's  variegated  stock 

Your  palette  shape,  with  surface  smooth  and  shining ; 

Pierce  then  a  hole  in  front,  in  which  to  lock 
Your  thumb,  the  tablet  to  its  place  confining, 

While  on  its  polished  plane  the  paints  you  fix, 

And  various  shades  in  nice  gradation  mix." 

To  him  succeeded  a  master  who  has  left  not  so  much  fame, 
but  a  great  many  more  pictures — Juan  de  las  Roelas,  born  at 
Seville,  in  1558  or  1560.  He  was  the  son  of  a  noble  family, 
probably  studied  at  Venice,  and  finally  received  the  appoint- 
ment of  prebendary  to  the  church  of  Olivarez,  a  town  north- 
west of  Seville.  His  coloring  was  warm  and  harmonious,  his 
outlines  grand,  and  his  style  suggestive  of  Tintoretto.  He 
was  peculiarly  successful  in  his  delineation  of  Spanish  friars. 
Sir  Edmund  Head  remarks :  "  The  Carthusians  of  Zurbaran 
and  the  Jesuits  of  Roelas  give  us  the  very  essence  of  those 
orders."  He  has  only  one  painting  in  the  Museum  of  Madrid, 
"Moses  striking  the  Rock,"  sometimes  called  "The  Gala- 


346  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

bash,"  from  a  woman  near  the  foreground  who  is  drinking 
from  a  gourd.  But  in  the  churches  of  Seville  many  of  his 
compositions  are  still  found,  among  them  his  masterpiece, 
"  The  Transit  of  St.  Isidore."  For  the  Convent  of  Mercy  he 
painted  a  "St.  Anne  teaching  the  Virgin  to  read."  "The 
Virgin  kneels  before  her  mother,  reading  in  a  missal.  She  is 
thirteen  or  fourteen  years  old,  with  a  rose-colored  tunic  and 
a  blue  mantle  spotted  with  stars,  and  with  an  imperial  crown 
on  her  head.  At  her  side  St.  Anne  has  a  buffet  with  refresh- 
ments ;  underneath  it  are  a  little  cat  and  dog ;  close  to  the 
Virgin  stand  a  work-basket  and  some  playthings."  This 
picture  incurred  the  severe  censure  of  the  Inquisition ;  partly 
on  account  of  the  buffet  and  sweetmeats,  but  more  especially 
for  the  reason  that  it  was  profanity  to  suppose  the  Virgin 
ignorant  of  any  thing;  "for,"  as  one  of  their  authorities  de- 
clares, "  if  she  did  not  talk  from  the  time  of  her  birth,  it  was 
not  because  she  was  unable,  but  because  she  did  not  choose 
to  do  so." 

But  the  name  of  Roelas  is  more  easily  held  in  remembrance 
as  having  been  the  master  of  Francisco  Zurbaran,  born  in 
Estremadura,  in  the  year  1598.  He  ranks  next  to  Murillo 
and  Velasquez,  and,  excepting  them  and  perhaps  Ribera,  is 
more  -generally  known  than  any  artist  of  Spain.  All  his  char- 
acteristics are  intensely  Spanish — his  deep  coloring,  impas- 
sioned vigor,  dignified  drapery,  and  fanatic  monks.  "  Sacred 
rapture,  contrition,  and  enthusiastic  ardor,  prevail  in  his 
paintings."  A  slight  exception  must,  however,  be  made  in 
regard  to  a  few  of  his  female  saints,  who  may  be  allowed  to 
be  somewhat  tinged  with  worldliness — for  example,  a  "  St. 
Cecilia,"  who  stands  playing  upon  the  organ  in  full  court- 


PAINTING  IN  SPAIN. 

347 

dress,  with  spangled  apron,  hoops,  and  unmistakable  indi- 
cations of  rouge  upon  her  cheeks. 

From  his  labors  at  Seville  Zurbaran  was  summoned  to 
Madrid,  where  he  became  court-painter,  and  died  in  1662. 
Philip  IV.  one  day  saluted  him  as  "  painter  to  the  king,  and 
the  king  of  painters."  Critics  have  called  him  the  Spanish 
Caravaggio ;  but  he  presents  one  of  the  few  instances  where 
the  Spanish  master  surpasses  his  Italian  rival.  He  has  Cara- 
vaggio's  power,  without  his  vulgarity;  his  effectiveness  of 
light  and  shade,  without  his  exaggeration  and  coarseness. 

Zurbaran's  most  famous  picture  is  his  "  St.  Thomas  of 
Aquinas,"  now  in  the  Museum  of  Seville.  At  the  top  of  the 
composition  sit  the  Virgin  and  Child  in  glory,  with  St.  Paul 
and  St.  Dominic ;  and  below  are  fine  and  almost  colossal 
figures  of  Thomas  Aquinas  and  other  adoring  saints  and 
doctors.  A  beautiful  "  Infant  Christ,"  asleep  with  a  crown 
of  thorns  beside  him,  is  at  Madrid ;  and  a  number  of  his 
other  works  may  be  inspected  in  the  galleries  of  that  city  and 
of  Seville.  The  Louvre  formerly  claimed  to  possess  eighty- 
two  of  his  pictures,  but  the  collection  is  now  dispersed^  An 
impressive  maniac-like  "  Monk  "  is  in  the  London  Gallery. 
Others  are  at  St.  Petersburg,  while  at  Munich  is  a  "  St.  John 
leading  Home  the  Virgin  after  the  Crucifixion,"  very  sugges- 
tive of  the  treatment  of  the  same  subject  by  modern  artists. 
Zurbaran's  own  portrait,  taken  in  youth,  represents  him  mild 
and  handsome,  but  with  intense  and  serious  eyes,  and  a  pro- 
fusion of  long  black  hair. 

Francisco  de  Herrara  the  Elder,  born  in  1576,  was  an- 
other, though  much  less  renowned,  painter  of  Seville.  He 
was  remarkable  both  for  his  violent  style  and  his  violent 


348  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

temper,  and  distinguished  for  his  free  and  bold  execution,  so 
bold  that  he  would  occasionally  dash  in  his  colors  with  a 
broom  \  A  large  picture  of  "  St.  Hermenegild,"  now  in  the 
Museum  of  Seville,  gained  him  much  commendation  from 
Philip  IV.  He  died  at  Madrid,  in  1650. 

Francisco  Pacheco,  born  at  Seville,  about  1571,  has  a 
wider  reputation  as  an  author  than  an  artist.  His  paintings 
were  commonplace,  though  most  industriously  multiplied. 
He  left  not  less  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  portraits,  several 
altar-pieces,  and  much  decorative  work.  His  largest  compo- 
sition was  a  "  Last  Judgment,"  with  a  concourse  of  figures, 
for  the  nunnery  of  St.  Isabel.  He  also  executed  a  full-length 
portrait  of  Ignatius  Loyola.  In  his  house  at  Seville  he  es- 
tablished a  school  of  art  which  grew  to  be  extremely  popular. 
Alonzo  Cano  and  Velasquez  were  his  pupils,  and  Velasquez 
afterward  became  his  son-in-law. 

His  volume  on  the  "  Art  of  Painting  "  is  his  most  inter- 
esting memorial.  He  begins  in  "  chaos  and  eternal  night," 
winds  slowly  down  antiquity  to  the  Christian  era,  discourses 
largely  upon  the  artistic  merits  of  St.  Luke,  and  finally  de- 
scribes with  great  minuteness  his  own  pictures  and  those  of 
his  contemporaries.  One  part  is  especially  devoted  to  a  code 
of  rules  for  representing  sacred  subjects  in  the  most  orthodox 
manner.  This  must  have  been  eagerly  studied  by  his  coun- 
trymen from  the  fact  that  he  was  appointed  Familiar  of  the 
Inquisition  in  1618,  and  authorized  to  report  to  the  Holy 
Office  all  objectionable  paintings.  His  horror  at  the  least 
indecorum  is  most  strongly  expressed.  Draperies  to  the 
throat  are  of  course  a  necessity.  Ungloved  hands  may  be 
permitted,  but  unshod  feet  are  severely  condemned.  "  In  the 


PAINTING  IN  SPAIN.  349 

'  Last  Judgment,'  the  nakedness  of  the  risen  souls  greatly 
perplexes  his  mind ;  it  being  correct  from  an  aesthetic  point 
of  view,  but  inadmissible  from  an  orthodox."  He  adds  spe- 
cific directions  for  the  mode  of  treating  the  "  Nativity,"  the 
"  Crucifixion,"  and  other  divine  mysteries. 

Alonzo  Cano,  born  at  Granada,  in  1601,  never  attained  to 
the  greatness  of  his  fellow-pupil  Velasquez,  yet  in  the  annals 
of  Spain  he  is  deservedly  famous.  He  was  not  only  a  painter, 
but  an  architect,  and  an  excellent  sculptor,  coloring  his  carved 
figures  in  a  manner  then  held  by  public  taste  to  be  exceed- 
ingly charming.  By  some  authors  he  has  been  compared  to 
Michael  Angelo ;  by  others,  less  complimentary,  to  Albano, 
which  would  certainly  imply  a  wide  range  of  qualities  !  But 
we  have  seen  that  the  Spaniards  possess  a  genius  for  compari- 
son. Cano's  merits  were  entirely  the  result  of  native  devel- 
opment, for  he  was  never  in  Italy.  His  style  is  both  forcible 
and  tender ;  vigorous,  yet  soft  in  outline,  pure  in  sentiment, 
and  natural  in  expression.  His  pictures  are  chiefly  religious, 
though  he  also  excelled  in  portraits,  and  gave  particular  at- 
tention to  the  hands  and  feet,  which  in  his  figures  are  always 
accurate  and  finely  formed. 

Though  kind  and  charitable  toward  the  poor,  Cano  had 
an  impetuous  and  uncontrolled  temper,  which  sadly  marred 
his  life.  While  at  the  height  of  youthful  success  in  Seville, 
he  fought  a  duel,  in  which  he  wounded  his  adversary,  and 
was  obliged  to  fly  to  Madrid,  where  the  presence  and  protec- 
tion of  Velasquez  secured  him  a  favorable  reception.  Some 
years  later  he  was  accused  of  the  assassination  of  his  wife, 
and  to  escape  arrest  retreated  to  Valencia,  where  he  has  left 
some  pictures  as  a  record  of  his  stay.  But,  incautiously  re- 


35° 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


turning  to  the  capital,  he  was  seized  and  put  to  the  torture. 
In  consideration  of  his  great  abilities  as  an  artist,  the  king 
directed  that,  whatever  other  punishment  should  be  inflicted, 
his  right  hand  should  not  be  injured.  He  never  confessed 
his  crime,  nor  has  it  ever  been  ascertained  whether  he  were 
really  guilty.  Evidently  Philip  IV.  believed  in  his  inno- 
cence, for  he  soon  afterward  appointed  him  canon  of  the  ca- 
thedral of  Granada,  and  commissioned  him  to  adorn  it  with 
pictures.  In  spite  of  much  opposition  from  the  associated 
clergy,  he  finally  retained  the  position,  and  remained  in  Gra- 
nada till  his  death,  in  1667. 

Spanish  art-historians  delight  to  dwell  upon  Cano's  eccen- 
tricities. His  violent  temper  and  hatred  of  the  Jews  gave 
rise  to  many  amusing  anecdotes.  These  ruling  passions  were 
so  strong  in  death  that  he  would  not  receive  the  last  sacra- 
ments from  the  hand  of  a  priest  who  was  in  the  habit  of  con- 
fessing penitent  Jews;  nor  would  he  be  consoled  with  a 
badly-carved  crucifix,  which,  he  complained,  disturbed  his 
contemplations,  and  provoked  him  beyond  endurance.  It 
was  exchanged  for  a  simple  cross;  whereupon  his  biogra- 
phers relate  that  "  he  died  in  the  most  exemplary  manner, 
edifying  the  by-standers  with  his  piety." 

The  largest  collection  of  his  paintings  is  in  Madrid ;  among 
them  a  "Christ  wept  over  by  Angels,"  a  meditating  "St. 
Jerome,"  and  "  Christ  at  the  Column."  Some  of  his  altar- 
pieces  are  preserved  in  Granada  and  Valencia.  In  a  chapel 
of  the  cathedral  of  Seville  is  "  Our  Lady  of  Bethlehem,"  and 
in  the  church  of  Monte  Sion,  in  that  city,  is  a  striking  paint- 
ing of  "  Purgatory,"  .with  flames  of  fire  running  off  the  heads. 
Most  of  the  royal  galleries  of  Germany  and  France  possess 


PAINTING  IN  SPAIN.  35I 

one  or  more  specimens  of  Cano.    His  portrait  may  be  seen  in 
the  Hermitage  at  St.  Petersburg. 

Before  passing  to  Velasquez  and  Murillo,  we  must  return 
for  a  few  moments  to  the  school  of  Valencia,  where  Juan 
Joanes  was  followed,  in  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
by  Francisco  Ribalta,  born  at  Castellon  de  la  Plana,  a  small 
town  to  the  north  of  Valencia.  The  youthful  Ribalta  found 
at  first  little  honor  in  his  own  country,  for,  falling  in  love  with 
the  daughter  of  his  painting-master,  the  unappreciative  father 
refused  to  listen  to  the  suit  of  a  pupil  whom  he  considered 
without  either  talents  or  prospects.  The  wretched  lover  de- 
parted for  Italy,  studied  with  diligence,  and  at  the  end  of  a 
few  years  returned  to  claim  his  faithful  bride.  Coming  to  her 
house,  which  was  of  course  unchanged,  and  finding  his  mas- 
ter conveniently  absent,  he  employed  himself,  in  the  intervals 
of  conversation,  by  finishing  a  picture  which  stood  upon  the 
easel.  The  father  on  discovering  it  was  as  pleased  and  sur- 
prised as  the  most  ardent  novelist  could  desire,  and  ex- 
claimed that  the  artist  "  should  be  his  son-in-law,  instead  of 
that  bungler  Ribalta."  The  happy  (ttnotiment  can  be  easily  im- 
agined. A  success  so  romantically  begun  was  continued  by 
universal  patronage.  The  archbishop  gave  him  an  order  for 
an  altar-piece  in  the  college  of  Corpus  Christi,  an  admirable 
"  Last  Supper,"  which  is  still  left  to  perpetuate  his  fame. 
Other  pictures  exist  in  the  same  college,  and  in  the  Museum 
and  churches  of  Valencia  ;  many  of  which  are,  however,  the 
work  of  his  son  Juan,  who  inherited  all  his  father's  abilities. 
Hare  describes  them  as  generally  of  the  "black  agony 
school,"  except  Juan's  impressive  "Nailing  to  the  Cross,"  in 
the  Valencia  Museum,  representing  "  the  Saviour  seated  upon 


352 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


the  slightly-inclined  cross  on  which  he  is  being  fastened, 
and  looking  up  to  heaven  in  rapt  contemplation,  while  one 
of  the  thieves,  standing  near,  with  his  hands  bound,  watches 
with  intense  interest  the  preparation  of  the  cross  to  which  he 
is  to  be  fixed." 

The  style  of  the  two  Ribaltas  is  so  similar  that  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  distinguish  between  their  paintings.  Both  re- 
semble and  frequently  surpass  Sebastian  del  Piombo.  Both 
died  in  Valencia,  in  1628 — the  son  surviving  the  father  but  a 
very  few  months.  The  pictures  in  the  Madrid  Gallery  are 
ascribed  to  Juan.  Among  them  is  a  "St.  Francis  of  Assisi 
wakened  at  Midnight  by  Angelic  Music."  In  the  chapel  of 
Magdalene  College,  Oxford,  hangs  an  altar-piece  formerly 
described  as  a  Morales,  but  now  believed  to  be  from  the 
hand  of  one  of  the  Ribaltas.  It  portrays  the  Saviour  bearing 
his  cross,  and,  dark  in  its  original  coloring,  has  grown  still 
darker  by  age.  It  was  captured  in  a  Spanish  vessel  in  the 
reign  of  Queen  Anne,  and,  after  being  for  a  long  time  private 
property,  was  presented  to  the  college. 

The  Ribaltas  were  succeeded  by  Josef  de  Ribera,  usually 
termed  Lo  Spagnoletto,  born  at  Xativa,  near  Valencia,  in 
1588.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Francisco  Ribalta,  but  left  him  at 
a  very  early  age,  and  found  his  way  to  Rome,  where  he 
worked  with  great  diligence  but  in  deep  poverty.  A  benev- 
olent cardinal,  driving  through  the  streets  of  the  city,  saw  a 
young  man  copying  a  fresco  from  the  fa9ade  of  a  palace, 
stopped  to  question  him,  became  interested  in  the  youth,  and 
finally  received  him  into  his  own  family.  But  his  protigt  was 
not  happy  in  his  new  abode,  and  soon  quitted  it  to  return  to 
his  former  occupation.  The  band  of  artists  among  whom  he 


PAINTING  IN  SPAIN.  .,-- 

labored  called  him  "  Lo  Spagnoletto,"  or  "  The  Little  Span- 
iard," in  allusion  to  his  birth  and  his  diminutive  height.  He 
was  always  very  proud  of  his  nationality,  and,  in  spite  of  his 
life-long  residence  in  Italy,  considered  himself  as  belonging 
to  Spain.  His  favorite  models  while  at  Rome  were  the  fres- 
coes of  Annibale  Carracci,  in  the  Farnese  Palace,  and  the 
pictures  of  Caravaggio,  whose  daring  effects  of  shadow,  and 
vehemence  of  attitude  and  expression,  he  admired  and  imi- 
tated. A  short  course  of  study  of  Correggio  at  Parma  added 
a  little  grace  and  softness  to  his  savage  style,  and  its  effects 
are  traceable  in  a  few  of  his  works,  as  for  instance  in  his 
"Jacob's  Dream,"  a  painting  where  the  main  interest  centres 
in  the  sleeping  Jacob  in  the  foreground,  and  but  small  ac- 
count is  made  of  the  angelic  messengers,  or  the  ladder  of 
glory. 

Leaving  Rome  for  Naples,  he  was  fortunate  enough  to 
form  the  acquaintance  of  a  Neapolitan  picture- dealer  whose 
first  kindness  was  to  offer  him  his  daughter  in  marriage,  and 
his  second,  to  exhibit  his  paintings.  Ribera  accepted  both 
favors,  and  soon  executed  a  large  and  frightful  "  Martyrdom 
of  St.  Bartholomew,"  which  delighted  the  public,  and  secured 
him  the  lasting  patronage  of  the  viceroy.  Riches  and  honor 
poured  in  upon  him.  He  bought  a  magnificent  house,  rode 
in  his  own  coach,  and  lived  in  splendor.  Having  reached 
this  position,  he  was  by  no  means  disposed  to  allow  other 
artists  to  share  the  liberality  of  the  court.  He  headed  the 
disgraceful  factions  which  drove  Guido  Reni  and  his  col- 
leagues from  Naples,  and  are  thought  to  have  occasioned  the 
death  of  Domenichino.  Many  stories  are  told  of  his  jealousy 
and  evil  disposition.  In  the  convent  of  San  Martino,  where 


354 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS   OF  PAINTING, 


he  executed  his  masterpiece,  "  The  Descent  from  the  Cross," 
the  same  subject  had  been  repeated  by  an  artist  named 
Stanzioni.  Ribera  persuaded  the  monks  that  this  needed 
cleaning,  "  and  by  mixing  corrosive  substances  with  the  var- 
nish he  spoiled  all  the  delicate  parts'  of  Stanzioni's  picture." 

Philip  IV.  was  one  of  Ribera's  devoted  patrons,  and 
bought  a  number  of  his  works  for  his  own  palaces  and  col- 
lections. Many  of  his  pictures  and  portraits  are  still  at  Ma- 
drid— most  of  them  in  the  dark  and  terrible  style  so  con- 
genial to  his  temper.  His  execution  was  rapid,  but  his  paint 
often  lies  upon  the  surface  in  thick  lines  and  blotches.  Power 
and  vividness  were  the  characteristics  at  which  he  aimed, 
and  he  pursued  them  with  all  a  Spaniard's  realism,  and  with 
the  aid  of  those  intense  contrasts  of  light  and  shadow  pecul- 
iar to  the  school  of  the  Tenebrosi.  His  "  Martyrdom  of  St. 
Bartholomew,"  "  Cato  tearing  out  his  Entrails,"  and  "  Ixion 
on  the  Wheel,"  may  give  some  idea  of  his  usual  manner.  His 
works  are  also  found  at  Naples,  St.  Petersburg,  and  Dresden. 
In  the  latter  gallery  a  "  St.  Mary  of  Egypt "  is  one  of  the 
few  beautiful  faces  ever  created  by  his  brush.  An  "  Adoration 
of  the  Shepherds  "  hangs  in  the  Louvre.  Ribera  died  near 
Naples,  about  1656. 

Velasquez  and  Murillo,  the  great  representatives  of  Span- 
ish art,  must  now  engage  our  attention.  Diego  Rodriguez  de 
Silva  y  Velasquez,  the  surname  descending,  according  to  An- 
dalusian  custom,  from  his  mother's  and  not  from  his  father's 
family,  was  born  at  Seville,  in  1599.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
lawyer,  but  his  pedigree  boasted  the  "  blue  blood  "  of  Spain. 
His  parents  gave  him  an  excellent  education,  affording  him 
all  scholastic  advantages,  and  instilling  into  him  "the  milk 


DEPOSITION  OF  CHRIST  (Ribera). 


P-  354- 


PAINTING  IN  SPAIN.  355 

of  the  fear  of  God  " — a  moral  training  whose  effect  he  after- 
ward exhibited  in  the  benevolence  of  his  disposition  and  his 
kindness  to  fellow-artists.  Francisco  Herrara,  of  whom  we 
have  already  spoken,  was  his  first  instructor  in  painting,  but 
his  fierceness  of  style  and  temper  was  so  repugnant  to  the 
young  Velasquez  that  he  exchanged  his  studio  for  that  of  the 
amiable  but  less  vigorous  Pacheco.  The  pupil  soon  surpassed 
the  master,  yet  he  turned  the  connection  to  romantic  account 
by  marrying  Pacheco 's  daughter,  and  by  securing  for  himself 
the  profound  and  unalterable  attachment  of  his  father-in-law. 
Meanwhile  he  studied  diligently,  resolving  to  copy  every 
thing  from  Nature,  from  man  to  fishes.  In  this  scrupulous 
fidelity  lay  the  germ  of  all  his  future  success  as  a  portrait,  his- 
torical, and  genre  painter.  Pacheco  relates  that  he  long  kept 
a  peasant-lad  who  served  him  as  a  model  in  every  variety  of 
pose  and  expression.  He  was  fond,  too,  of  selecting  subjects 
from  the  ordinary  life  of  the  streets,  and  has  left  in  his 
famous  "Water-Carrier  of  Seville,"  often  photographed,  a 
striking  example  of  this  period  of  his  career.  It  is  a  simple 
piece — only  a  seller  of  water,  with  a  strongly  Spanish  physiog- 
nomy, stopping  to  supply  two  thirsty  and  tattered  boys  from 
his  glass  and  jar. 

Soon  after  his  marriage  he  was  called  to  Madrid  through 
the  influence  of  a  courtier  friend,  and  there  painted  as  his 
first  picture  the  portrait  of  Philip  IV.,  which  so  enraptured 
the  king  that  he  declared  his  intention  of  destroying  all  other 
likenesses  which  had  previously  been  taken  of  him.  But  a 
love  of  their  own  representations  was  so  hereditary  a  passion 
among  Spanish  monarchs  that  it  is  uncertain  whether  the 
intention  was  ever  actually  consummated.  If  it  were,  the 


356 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


losses  were  soon  supplied,  for  he  was  ordered  to  continue 
painting  the  king  in  all  situations  and  positions.  "  Philip  IV. 
on  Horseback  "  was  his  chef-d'oeuvre  in  this  branch  of  art, 
and  was  not  only  applauded  by  its  owner,  but  by  later  and 
more  disinterested  observers.  As  a  portrait-painter  Velas- 
quez possessed  the  pleasing  peculiarity  of  always  securing 
more  or  less  of  a  noble  and  dignified  expression  without  in 
the  least  sacrificing  the  resemblance.  Such  was  the  royal 
favor  that  the  court-painter  with  difficulty  obtained  permis- 
sion to  visit  Italy,  a  desire  which  he  had  always  cherished, 
but  which  had  grown  still  stronger  in  his  mind  since  his 
friendship  with  Rubens,  who  came  to  Madrid  as  embassador 
in  1628.  At  last  the  king'  consented  to  an  absence  of  two 
years,  and  Velasquez  departed  for  Venice  and  Rome.  While 
at  Rome  he  applied  himself  to  copying  some  of  the  best  fres- 
coes of  Michael  Angelo  and  Raphael,  but  also  produced  "  The 
Forge  of  Vulcan,"  and  "  Joseph's  Coat,"  which  he  carried 
back  to  Spain,  and  which  are  still  among  his  most  valued 
works  at  Madrid.  Having  resumed  his  residence  at  the 
court,  he  naturally  resumed  his  portraits,  for  which  the  royal 
family  seemed  to  offer  an  inexhaustible  field.  He  also  per- 
petuated the  faces  and  figures  of  the  strange  little  dwarfs 
who  were  at  that  time  the  pets  of  the  Spanish  nobility. 

Until  the  appearance  of  Velasquez,  landscape  art  may  be 
said  to  have  been  unknown  in  Spain.  With  him  it  became 
not  only  a  background  for  other  subjects,  but  a  truthful  re- 
production of  the  beauty  of  Nature.  His  skies,  indeed,  are 
sometimes  cold,  and  the  tone  of  his  pictures  may  fall  below 
our  present  cultivated  ideal,  but  his  delineations  are  often 
brilliant,  and  always  most  faithful ;  and  his  tints  so  graduated 


PAINTING  IN  SPAIN,  „. 

that  he  "knew  how  to  paint  the  air."  He  was  accustomed 
to  introduce  groups  of  figures  which  added  animation  to  his 
views  without  lessening  their  scenic  effect.  His  "  Gardens  of 
Aranjuez  "  and  "  Prospect  of  Pardo  "  are  among  his  finest 
landscapes  in  the  Spanish  Gallery,  and  his  "  Hermits  of  the 
Desert  "  is  very  striking.  Some  of  his  historical  pieces  are 
equally  remarkable,  especially  the  "  Surrender  of  Breda," 
painted  about  1626,  and  known  as  the  "Picture  of  the 
Lances,"  from  a  line  of  soldiers  who  stand  with  their  pikes 
relieved  against  the  sky.  The  same  museum  possesses  his 
"  Topers,"  a  most  natural  and  national  drinking-scene.  In 
sacred  subjects  Velasquez  was  never  at  home.  He  had  too 
little  imagination  and  too  intense  realism.  He  studied  Na- 
ture, and  left  religion  to  Murillo.  Yet  he  has  given  us  one 
wonderful  example  of  his  ability  even  in  that  direction  in  his 
conception  of  the  "  Crucifixion,"  at  Madrid.  The  dead  Sav- 
iour hangs  upon  the  cross  ;  his  head  droops  upon  his  breast* 
and  the  long  hair  so  falls  over  his  brow  as  to  hide  the  face. 

In  1648  Velasquez  made  another  journey  into  Italy,  being 
deputed  by  the  king  to  purchase  gems  of  art  for  his  royal 
galleries.  This  was  accomplished  to  Velasquez's  delight  and 
Philip's  satisfaction  ;  and  the  artist  on  his  return  found  him- 
self more  popular  than  ever.  It  was  after  this  visit  that  he 
executed  his  masterpiece  called  in  Spain  "  Las  Meninas,"  or 
the  "  Maids  of  Honor."  It  represents  most  vividly,  but  with- 
out any  charm  of  color,  the  "  Infanta  Margarita  who  is  tried 
to  be  amused  by  her  page,  while  her  two  dwarfs  worry  a 
patient  dog  which  is  painted  finer  than  a  Snyders.  One  of 
the  ladies  offers  a  cup  of  water  to  the  Infanta,  who  is  mealy- 
faced  and  uninteresting.  In  the  background  are  a  mirror  and 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS   OF  PAINTING. 


an  open  door  which  admits  the  light ;  while  on  the  left  stands 
Velasquez  at  his  easel.  .  .  .  You  see  on  his  breast  a  sprawling 
red  cross,  painted  evidently  by  an  unskillful  hand.  It  was 
the  gracious  answer  made  by  Philip  IV.  when  the  artist  asked 
him  if  any  thing  was  wanting  to  the  picture.  This  decoration, 
daubed  by  royalty,  was  the  accolade  of  the  knighthood  of 
Santiago — an  honor  beyond  the  dreams  of  an  artist  of  that 
day." 

Another  celebrated  picture,  also  at  Madrid,  is  entitled 
"  Las  Hilanderas,"  or  "  The  Spinners."  "  It  shows  the  interior 
of  a  manufactory,  an  immense  room,  dimly  lighted,  in  the 
brightest  time  of  the  day.  Work-women,  half  naked,  are  oc- 
cupied with  the  different  employments  of  their  trade ;  while 
some  ladies  are  being  shown  some  of  the  completed  work." 
The  effects  of  light  and  color  are  here  considered  very  won- 
derful. 

Most  of  Velasquez's  other  works,  about  sixty  in  number, 
are  now  collected  at  Madrid.  Few,  excepting  portraits,  have 
been  taken  out  of  Spain.  At  Vienna  is,  however,  a  most  ex- 
cellent and  characteristic  painting,  in  the  same  style  as  "  Las 
Meninas,"  called  "  The  Family  of  Velasquez,"  and  exhibiting 
himself  and  his  wife  in  an  apartment,  surrounded  by  their 
children,  with  the  portrait  of  Philip  IV.  hanging  upon  the 
wall,  and  the  artist  before  his  easel,  engaged  upon  a  likeness 
of  the  queen. 

The  honors  of  the  court,  which  the  favored  painter  had 
always  so  richly  enjoyed,  proved  at  last  the  cause  of  his 
death.  The  duties  of  his  office  compelled  him  to  take  an 
active  and  responsible  part  in  the  direction  of  the  festivities 
held  at  the  Isle  of  Pheasants  in  1660,  on  the  occasion  of  the 


PAINTING  IN  SPAIN. 

ojy 

conference  between  the  Kings  of  France  and  Spain,  at  the 
marriage  of  the  Infanta  Maria  Theresa  with  Louis  XIV.  Ex- 
citement and  fatigue  consequent  upon  his  labors  produced  a 
fatal  illness,  and  he  died  at  Madrid,  on  the  6th  of  August,  1660. 

Meanwhile  his  brilliant  contemporary  Murillo  had  at- 
tained the  zenith  of  popularity.  It  is  pleasant  to  read  of 
the  lives  of  these  two  artists,  both  gifted,  happy,  and  success- 
ful. They  differed  much,  however,  in  their  early  circum- 
stances. Bartolome"  Esteban  Murillo  was  born  at  Seville, 
near  the  close  of  the  year  1617.  His  parents  were  in  humble 
condition,  and  he  himself  endured  in  his  youth  all  the  strug- 
gles of  poverty  and  obscurity.  He  displayed  when  very 
young  a  talent  for  painting ;  and  a  relation  of  the  family, 
Juan  del  Castillo,  was  kind  enough  to  instruct  him.  But 
Juan  soon  removed  to  Cadiz,  and  left  Murillo  to  pursue  his 
vocation,  with  the  streets  and  the  market-place  for  his  studio. 
Meeting  a  fellow-pupil,  Pedro  de  Moya,  who  had  been 
abroad,  and  carefully  imitated  the  works  of  Vandyck,  Mu- 
rillo was  so  struck  by  his  improvement,  and  so  seized  with 
longing  to  make  a  similar  journey,  that  he  at  once  began  to 
plan  for  the  means  of  travel.  His  parents  were  dead,  and  he 
had  no  money ;  but  the  city  was  continually  visited  by  Ameri- 
can traders,  who  were  willing  to  purchase  little  pictures  of 
saints  and  Madonnas  for  thernewly-converted  inhabitants  of 
Mexico  and  Peru.  He  bought  a  roll  of  canvas,  cut  it  into 
squares,  industriously  covered  them  with  such  attractive  sub- 
jects, and  sold  them  all,  cheaply  but  profitably,  to  the  cap- 
tains of  the  ships. 

With  the  funds  so  procured  he  started  for  Madrid,  where 

he  introduced  himself  to  Velasquez.     The  amiable  painter 
24 


36o  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

saw  the  genius  of  his  young  countryman,  and  advised  him  to 
postpone  for  a  while  his  foreign  tour,  and  to  copy  at  Madrid 
the  works  of  Vandyck  and  Rubens,  procuring  him  at  the 
same  time  admission  to  the  Escurial  and  to  all  the  royal  pal- 
aces. After  nearly  three  years'  study  at  the  court,  Murillo 
relinquished  his  desire  to  visit  Italy,  and  returned  to  Seville. 
The  monks  of  the  Franciscan  convent,  an  order  for  which 
many  of  his  best  pictures  have  been  painted,  desired  to  orna- 
ment their  cloisters,  and  selected  him  for  the  work.  He  exe- 
cuted for  them  eleven  appropriate  scenes,  which  excited  the 
admiration  of  the  whole  city,  and  immediately  established  his 
reputation.  Most  of  these  were  carried  off  by  Marshal  Soult ; 
and  one  entitled  "  La  Cuisine  Celeste,"  or  the  "  Angels' 
Kitchen,"  is  now  in  the  Louvre,  but  dreadfully  retouched  and 
restored.  It  shows  us  a  Franciscan  monk,  who  has  been 
somewhat  inconveniently  seized  with  heavenly  ecstasy  while 
cooking  the  convent  dinner.  He  is  rapturously  suspended 
near  the  kitchen  ceiling.  Several  ministering  angels  conde- 
scendingly approach  the  stove,  and  perform  his  labors ;  while 
a  few  astonished  brethren  adoringly  look  on. 

From  this  time  Murillo  was  secure  of  patronage,  and  in 
1648  he  married  a  wealthy  and  well-born  wife  from  a  neigh- 
boring town.  There  is  a  pretty  little  story  of  his  having  first 
met  the  lady  while  painting  an  altar-piece  for  a  church  at 
Pilas,  where,  struck  by  her  beauty,  he  introduced  her  as  an 
angel  into  the  picture.  They  lived  harmoniously  together,  and 
left  three  children,  two  of  whom  were  sons.  Gabriel  went  to 
the  Indies;  but  Caspar  took  priest's  orders,  painted  occa- 
sionally in  imitation  of  his  father,  and  died  in  1709.  The 
daughter,  Francesca,  became  a  nun. 


PAINTING  IN  SPAIN.  -6l 

Murillo  continued  to  reside  in  Seville,  and  enriched  the 
city  with  his  works.  He  died  on  the  3d  of  April,  1682,  in 
consequence  of  a  fall  from  a  high  scaffolding,  while  engaged 
in  painting  a  large  "  Marriage  of  St.  Catharine."  Over  the 
gate  of  the  pleasant  house  in  the  Calle  de  Barrabas,  which 
was  once  his  home,  a  marble  tablet  has  been  erected,  bearing 
his  name.  His  reputation  during  his  lifetime  was  as  envi- 
able as  after  death.  All  critics  agree  in  his  praise.  One  of 
them  remarked,  in  allusion  to  an  "  Immaculate  Conception," 
that  those  who  did  not  know  it  had  been  painted  by  the 
great  artist  of  Seville  would  suppose  that  it  had  had  its  birth 
in  heaven.  This  subject  was  peculiarly  dear  to  Murillo.  He 
is  said  to  have  repeated  it  twenty-five  times,  and  has  been 
frequently  called  "the  Painter  of  the  Conception."  The  best 
of  these  pictures  are  at  Seville,  Madrid,  and  Paris.  His 
•daughter  Francesca  often  served  him  as  a  model.  Indeed,  the 
innovation  of  representing  the  Virgin  with  dark  hair  and 
eyes  is  entirely  of  Spanish  origin.  All  other  artists  held  to 
the  locks  of  gold  or  brown  belonging  to  the  traditional  type. 
In  many  of  his  "  Holy  Families  "  Murillo  has  given  us  the 
entranced  and  ethereal  Madonna,  but  oftener  still  a  simple 
domestic  scene,  with  homely  accessories ;  or  a  beautiful 
Spanish  mother  and  her  babe,  with  earnest  eyes,  but  no  spe- 
cially divine  element  in  her  maternity.  Such  may  be  found 
in  the  gallery  at  Dresden,  at  Vienna,  and  in  the  Corsini 
Palace,  Rome. 

We  are  perpetually  struck  by  the  variety  and  range  of 
Murillo's  genius.  He  succeeded  in  every  thing — "  the  heav- 
ens, the  earth,  tatters,  and  cherubim."  As  Charles  Blanc  ob- 
serves, "  he  could  paint  the  sacred  fervor  of  the  devotee,  or 


362  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

the  ecstasy  of  the  monkish  enthusiast,  as  well  as  the  ragged- 
ness  of  the  mendicant,  or  the  abject  suffering  of  Job."  He 
had  three  styles — the  cold,  the  warm,  and  the  aerial.  The 
first  of  these  may  be  illustrated  by  his  "Beggar-Boys," 
"  Flower-Girls,"  and  abundant  studies  of  peasant-life ;  though 
even  here  the  coloring  is  generally  varied  and  glowing. 
The  "  warm  "  style  characterized  his  "  Visions  "  and  "  Ec- 
stasies," and  blended  into  the  "aerial"  in  those  wonderful 
effects  of  luminous  perspective  where  we  see  the  heavenly 
radiance  of  an  angel,  or  the  glory  of  an  "  Annunciation  "  or 
"  Assumption." 

His  best  series  of  works  was  executed  for  the  Hospital  of 
Charity  at  Seville.  Five  of  these,  "  Moses  striking  the  Rock  ''' 
(usually  known  as  "La  Sed  "),  "The  Miracle  of  the 'Loaves 
and  Fishes,"  "The  Charity  of  Saint  Juan  de  Dios,""The 
Infant  Saviour,"  and  "The  Infant  St.  John,"  still  remain  in. 
their  places.  The  others  were  captured  by  the  French  army. 
But  the  masterpiece  of  all,  "St.  Elizabeth  of  Hungary,"  was 
returned  from  the  Louvre,  and  is  now  placed  in  the  Academy 
of  San  Fernando  at  Madrid.  It  represents  St.  Elizabeth, 
wearing  her  royal  crown,  yet  with  the  veil  of  a  nun,  standing 
in  a  palace-court,  ministering  to  the  distressed  and  poor. 
Her  attendants,  in  rich  robes,  hold  cloths  and  pitchers ; 
beggars  cluster  round  her,  and  in  the  foreground  bends  a  boy 
whose  scald-head  she  is  washing.  "  Her  white  hands  seem  to 
refuse  the  work  which  her  heart  commends.  Her  mouth 
trembles  with  horror,  and  her  eyes  fill  with  tears ;  but  pity 
conquers  even  disgust,  and  religion  triumphs."  In  the  same 
academy  are  two  other  large  and  celebrated  paintings,  in- 
tended to  illustrate  the  founding  of  the  church  of  Santa  Maria 


PAINTING  IN  SPAIN, 


363 


Maggiore,  Rome,  which  owed  its  origin  to  a  vision  of  the 
Virgin,  who  indicated  by  a  miraculous  fall  of  snow  the  spot 
where  the  basilica  was  to  be  built. 

Forty-five  of  Murillo's  remaining  works  are  at  Madrid, 
including  an  "  Immaculate  Conception,"  "  Adoration  of  Shep- 
herds," and  "  Vision  of  St.  Augustine."  But  it  is  at  Seville 
that  he  appears  to  the  best  advantage.  In  the  cathedral  of 
that  city  is  the  famous  "St.  Anthony  of  Padua."  "  Kneeling 
near  a  table,  the  shaven,  brown-frocked  saint  is  surprised  by 
a  visit  from  the  infant  Jesus,  a  charming  naked  babe,  who 
descends  in  a  golden  air  of  glory,  walking  the  bright  air  as  if 
it  were  the  earth,  while  around  him  floats  and  hovers  a  com- 
pany of  cherubs  in  a  rich  garland  of  graceful  forms  and 
lovely  faces.  Gazing  up  in  rapture  at  this  dazzling  vision, 
the  saint  kneels,  with  arms  outstretched,  to  receive  the  ap- 
proaching Saviour.  On  the  table  at  his  side  there  is  a  vase 
of  white  lilies,  painted  with  such  skill  that  birds  wandering 
among  the  aisles  have  been  seen  attempting  to  perch  on  it, 
and  peck  the  flowers ;  while  at  the  left  an  arch  discloses  the 
perspective  of  the  cloister."  The  same  cathedral  contains 
the  beautiful  "  Guardian  Angel,"  leading  by  the  hand  a  little 
child.  The  Museum  possesses  seventeen  of  his  pictures, 
among  them  the  "Conception,"  usually  called  "The  Pearl  of 
Conceptions ;  "  a  fine  "  Nativity  ;  "  a  "  St.  Francis  embracing 
the  Crucified  Saviour ;  "  "  Saints  Rufina  and  Justa,"  the  patron 
saints  of  Seville ;  the  "  Charity  of  St.  Thomas  of  Villanueva," 
Murillo's  own  favorite ;  and  the  curious  "  Virgen  de  -la  Ser- 
viletta,"  of  which  they  tell  the  tradition  that  it  was  painted 
for  the  cook  of  a  Capuchin  convent  on  a  dinner-napkin.  It 
is  a  Madonna  with  the  Infant  leaning  forward  out  of  her 


364  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

arms,  very  small  in  size,  but  brilliant  in  golden  coloring,  and 
has  been-  well  engraved  at  Madrid. 

The  galleries  of  Europe  can  fortunately  boast  a  number  of 
"  Murillos."  The  most  popular  are  the  lovely  "  Conception  " 
of  the  Louvre,  where  the  Virgin  is  borne  upward  on  clouds, 
bathed  in  celestial  light,  and  surrounded  by  vast  drapery,  her 
longing  glance  seeking  to  precede  her  ascent  heavenward ;  a 
"  Holy  Family,"  also  in  the  Louvre,  sometimes  called  a  "  Trin- 
ity," from  the  figure  of  God  the  Father  who  bends  above; 
another  "Conception,"  at  the  Hermitage,  St.  Petersburg;  a 
repetition  of  the  "  St.  Anthony  of  Padua,"  in  the  Museum  of 
Berlin;  the  series  of  "Beggar-Boys,"  in  the  Pinakothek, 
Munich ;  the  well-known  "  Flower-Girl  "  of  the  Dulwich  Col- 
lection, England ;  and  the  "  St.  John  with  a  Lamb,"  in  the 
National  Gallery,  London. 

Before  his  death  it  was  Murillo's  great  desire  to  establish 
an  academy  of  art  at  Seville.  This  he  accomplished  in  1658, 
with  the  cooperation  of  V  aide's  Leal,  of  whom  we  shall  pres- 
ently speak.  But  the  academy,  so  auspiciously  begun,  soon 
languished,  and  in  less  than  fifty  years  became  extinct. 

Juan  de  V  aide's  Leal,  born  at  Cordova,  in  1630,  regarded 
himself  as  a  rival  of  Murillo,  though  posterity  has  never  ap- 
peared to  pay  much  attention  to  the  competition.  Yet  he  was 
an  artist  of  no  little  merit,  and  has  left  many  works  at  Seville, 
one  of  the  finest  being  a  "  Baptism  of  St.  Dominic,"  in  the 
Museum.  For  the  Hospital  of  Charity  in  that  city  he  painted 
two  curious  and  still  existing  pictures  illustrative  of  the  vanity 
of  worldly  grandeur.  "  One  represents  a  table  heaped  with 
tiaras,  crowns,  badges  of  knighthood,  and  other  gewgaws  of 
state,  with  a  taper,  beside  them,  which  Death,  carrying  a  coffin 


MADONNA  AND  CHILD  (Murillo). 


P.  364- 


PAINTING  IN  SPAIN. 


365 


under  one  arm,  extinguishes  with  the  bony  fingers  of  the 
other  hand.  Round  the  flame  of  the  taper  are  the  words, '/« 
ictu  oculi'  On  the  floor  is  an  open  coffin,  with  its  velvet  and 
ornaments  tattered  and  broken,  and  revealing  a  crowned  and 
grinning  corpse  within.  The  companion-piece  represents  a 
hand  holding  a  pair  of  scales,  in  which  the  sins  of  the  world 
in  the  form  of  bats,  peacocks,  serpents,  and  other  symbolical 
creatures,  are  weighed  against  the  nails,  reed,  and  the  rest  of 
the  emblems  of  the  Cross  and  Passion  of  our  Lord,  and 
found  wanting." 

Leal  died  of  palsy,  in  1691.  He  was  the  last  distinguished 
artist  of  the  school  of  Seville.  His  pupil,  Palomino  y  Velasco, 
has  indeed  acquired  considerable  reputation,  but  rather  as 
an  art-historian  than  a  painter.  His  frescoes  are  but  feeble, 
and  his  talents  second  rate.  Yet  his  biographies  of  the  paint- 
ers, which  he  calls  the  "  Picturesque  Laureled  Spanish  Par- 
nassus," are  so  interesting  that  he  is  frequently  styled  "  The 
Vasari  of  Spain."  His  associate,  Claudio  Coello,  stands  in 
the  same  relation  to  the  Spanish  as  Carlo  Maratti  to  the 
Italian  school.  His  best  altar-piece  is  in  the  Escurial,  but  he 
is  also  represented  in  the  Madrid  Gallery. 

After  this  period  the  annals  of  Spanish  art  furnish  little 
more  than  a  succession  of  empty  names.  The  house  of 
Austria  left  no  legacies  of  genius  to  the  unfortunate  Bour- 
bons. But  before  closing  the  records  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, we  must  not  omit  a  sketch  of  a  painter  who,  though  of 
foreign  origin,  deluged  Madrid  with  his  works,  and  obtained 
in  his  day  almost  as  great  a  share  of  royal  favor  as  Titian 
himself.  Luca  Giordano,  born  .in  Naples,  1632,  was  so  mar- 
velously  precocious  as  to  give  promise  of  a  career  more  brill- 


356 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


losses  were  soon  supplied,  for  he  was  ordered  to  continue 
painting  the  king  in  all  situations  and  positions.  "  Philip  IV. 
on  Horseback  "  was  his  cJief-d 'ceuvre  in  this  branch  of  art, 
and  was  not  only  applauded  by  its  owner,  but  by  later  and 
more  disinterested  observers.  As  a  portrait-painter  Velas- 
quez possessed  the  pleasing  peculiarity  of  always  securing 
more  or  less  of  a  noble  and  dignified  expression  without  in 
the  least  sacrificing  the  resemblance.  Such  was  the  royal 
favor  that  the  court-painter  with  difficulty  obtained  permis- 
sion to  visit  Italy,  a  desire  which  he  had  always  cherished, 
but  which  had  grown  still  stronger  in  his  mind  since  his 
friendship  with  Rubens,  who  came  to  Madrid  as  embassador 
in  1628.  At  last  the  king'  consented  to  an  absence  of  two 
years,  and  Velasquez  departed  for  Venice  and  Rome.  While 
at  Rome  he  applied  himself  to  copying  some  of  the  best  fres- 
coes of  Michael  Angelo  and  Raphael,  but  also  produced  "  The 
Forge  of  Vulcan,"  and  "  Joseph's  Coat,"  which  he  carried 
back  to  Spain,  and  which  are  still  among  his  most  valued 
works  at  Madrid.  Having  resumed  his  residence  at  the 
court,  he  naturally  resumed  his  portraits,  for  which  the  royal 
family  seemed  to  offer  an  inexhaustible  field.  He  also  per- 
petuated the  faces  and  figures  of  the  strange  little  dwarfs 
who  were  at  that  time  the  pets  of  the  Spanish  nobility. 

Until  the  appearance  of  Velasquez,  landscape  art  may  be 
said  to  have  been  unknown  in  Spain.  With  him  it  became 
not  only  a  background  for  other  subjects,  but  a  truthful  re- 
production of  the  beauty  of  Nature.  His  skies,  indeed,  are 
sometimes  cold,  and  the  tone  of  his  pictures  may  fall  below 
our  present  cultivated  ideal,  but  his  delineations  are  often 
brilliant,  and  always  most  faithful ;  and  his  tints  so  graduated 


PAINTING  IN  SPAIN.  35> 

that  he  "knew  how  to  paint  the  air."  He  was  accustomed 
to  introduce  groups  of  figures  which  added  animation  to  his 
views  without  lessening  their  scenic  effect.  His  "  Gardens  of 
Aranjuez  "  and  "  Prospect  of  Pardo  "  are  among  his  finest 
landscapes  in  the  Spanish  Gallery,  and  his  "  Hermits  of  the 
Desert  "  is  very  striking.  Some  of  his  historical  pieces  are 
equally  remarkable,  especially  the  "  Surrender  of  Breda," 
painted  about  1626,  and  known  as  the  "Picture  of  the 
Lances,"  from  a  line  of  soldiers  who  stand  with  their  pikes 
relieved  against  the  sky.  The  same  museum  possesses  his 
''  Topers,"  a  most  natural  and  national  drinking-scene.  In 
sacred  subjects  Velasquez  was  never  at  home.  He  had  too 
little  imagination  and  too  intense  realism.  He  studied  Na- 
ture, and  left  religion  to  Murillo.  Yet  he  has  given  us  one 
wonderful  example  of  his  ability  even  in  that  direction  in  his 
conception  of  the  "  Crucifixion,"  at  Madrid.  The  dead  Sav- 
iour hangs  upon  the  cross  ;  his  head  droops  upon  his  breasb 
and  the  long  hair  so  falls  over  his  brow  as  to  hide  the  face. 

In  1648  Velasquez  made  another  journey  into  Italy,  being 
deputed  by  the  king  to  purchase  gems  of  art  for  his  royal 
galleries.  This  was  accomplished  to  Velasquez's  delight  and 
Philip's  satisfaction  ;  and  the  artist  on  his  return  found  him- 
self more  popular  than  ever.  It  was  after  this  visit  that  he 
executed  his  masterpiece  called  in  Spain  "  Las  Meninas,"  or 
the  "  Maids  of  Honor."  It  represents  most  vividly,  but  with- 
out any  charm  of  color,  the  "  Infanta  Margarita  who  is  tried 
to  be  amused  by  her  page,  while  her  two  dwarfs  worry  a 
patient  dog  which  is  painted  finer  than  a  Snyders.  One  of 
the  ladies  offers  a  cup  of  water  to  the  Infanta,  who  is  mealy- 
faced  and  uninteresting.  In  the  background  are  a  mirror  and 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

Whims."  During  this  eighteenth  century  also  appeared  a 
pretty  conceit  of  painting  the  Virgin  Mary  as  the  divine 
Shepherdess,  "  seated  beneath  a  tree,  and  feeding  lambs  on 
roses."  Such  an  example,  by  Tobar,  may  be  seen  in  the 
Madrid  Gallery. 

In  closing  this  sketch  of  the  painters  of  Spain  it  may  be 
observed  that  the  War  of  Independence,  though  apparently 
destructive  to  many  treasures  of  the  past,  greatly  extended 
the  fame  of  the  nation.  The  masterpieces  scattered  through 
Europe  roused  the  deserved  appreciation  of  the  genius  which 
Spain  had  piously  hid.  We  must  admire  the  pictorial  gems 
unblushingly  stolen  by  Marshal  Soult  and  other  officers, 
though  we  condemn  the  mode  of  their  acquisition ;  and  in 
these  days,  when  engravings  and  photographs  have  brought 
within  our  view  so  many  of  the  best  designs  of  great  artists, 
we  are,  or  should  be,  as  familiar  with  Velasquez  and  Murillo 
as  with  Correggio  and  Raphael. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

PAINTING     IN     FRANCE. 

THE  beautiful  illuminated  manuscripts  in  the  Royal  Li- 
brary of  Paris,  which  we  have  noticed  in  the  early  chapter  on 
"  Byzantine  and  Miniature  Painting,"  form  the  foundation  of 
subsequent  French  art.  A  grace  and  delicacy  of  touch,  char- 
acteristic of  the  nation,  is  already  observable  in  such  manu- 
scripts as  mark  the  fourteenth,  fifteenth,  and  sixteenth  cen- 
turies, especially  in  the  "  Psalters  "  and  "  Romaunts  "  of  the 
period.  Yet  no  famous  names  are  attached  to  such  illumi- 
nations until  the  time  of  Jehan  Foucquet,  of  Tours,  born 
about  1415,  court-painter  to  Louis  XL,  who  has  left  us  many 
miniatures  in  the  "  Josephus "  and  other  parchments  pre- 
served at  Paris,  as  well  as  in  a  "  Boccaccio,"  at  Munich,  and 
a  "Book  of  Hours,"  at  Frankfort.  We  have  not  any  panel- 
pictures  from  his  hand,  except  possibly  a  "Madonna  and 
Child,"  attributed  to  him  in  the  Museum  at  Antwerp.  This 
is  really  a  portrait  of  Agnes  Sorel,  mistress  of  Charles  VII., 
in  the  garb  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  surrounded  by  angels  with 
red  wings.  It  is  a  pale,  unpleasant  picture,  in  the  Flemish 
style,  but  without  Flemish  merits. 

Although  very  few  ancient  frescoes  now  exist  in  France, 
apart  from  the  interesting  works  of  Simone  Martini,  or 


37° 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


Memmi,  and  other  Italians,  at  Avignon,  yet  national  critics 
persistently  assert  that  in  the  time  of  Charlemagne  it  was 
customary  to  cover  whole  walls  of  churches  with  mural  deco- 
rations, for  the  instruction  of  the  people ;  and  that  many 
monks  and  prelates  were  accomplished  artists.  However 
this  may  be,  we  know  that  glass-painting  was  practised  at  an 
early  date,  and  carried  to  great  perfection  by  the  fourteenth 
century,  as  the  old  cathedrals  abundantly  testify. 

The  good  King  Rene"  of  Anjou,  1408,  patron  of  minstrels 
and  lover  of  every  form  of  idealism,  also  figures  in  tradition 
as  the  executor  of  several  altar-pieces,  especially  a  "  Moses 
and  the  Burning  Bush,"  in  the  cathedral  of  Aix.  The  authen- 
ticity of  these,  as  well  as  of  his  "  Preaching  of  the  Magdalene  " 
to  a  listening  crowd,  among  whom  sit  himself  and  wife,  still 
shown  in  the  Hdtel  de  Cluny,  Paris,  is  not  unquestioned ; 
though  he  was  without  doubt  something  of  a  proficient  in  art, 
and  derived  much  consolation  from  it.  "  He  was  painting  a 
partridge  when  the  loss  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples  was  an- 
nounced to  him,  and  did  not  even  take  his  hand  from  the 
picture." 

»  But  it  is  with  Jean  Cousin  that  the  history  of  the  French 
school  really  opens.  The  time  of  his  birth  has  not  been 
accurately  fixed,  neither  are  we  acquainted  with  the  details 
of  his  life,  except  that  he  began  his  career,  early  in  the 
fifteenth  century,  as  a  painter  on  glass ;  completed  the  beauti- 
ful windows  of  the  cathedral  of  Sens,  was  thrice  married,  and 
reached  advanced  age.  His  only  well-known  composition  is 
the  "  Last  Judgment,"  of  the  Louvre ;  a  confused  but  pow- 
erful production,  where  the  nude  figures  of  the  risen  dead 
strangely  mingle  with  a  landscape  background  of  temple, 


PAINTING  IN  FRANCE. 

.57  * 

tower,  bridges,  and  ruins.  Cousin  was  also  an  able  sculptor 
and  engraver,  and  was  versed  in  literature  and  mathematics. 

Franfois  Clouet,  of  the  same  period,  surnamed  Janet,  was 
the  first  eminent  French  portrait-painter.  His  pictures  are 
quite  hard  and  Flemish  in  truth  and  precision,  yet  have  an 
air  of  French  esprit  and  grace.  The  Clouet  family  is  supposed 
to  have  originated  in  Flanders,  and  thence  migrated  to  Tours. 
Several  others  of  its  members  were  painters.  The  Louvre 
attributes  to  Francois  only  two  authentic  likenesses— those 
of  King  Charles  IX.,  and  his  wife,  Elizabeth  of  Austria. 
Many  other  portraits,  either  painted  by  his  son,  grandson,  or 
pupils,  or  perhaps  copies  from  lost  originals,  have  frequently 
been  ascribed  to  him,  and  are  of  great  value  in  French 
history. 

The  era  of  Francis  I.,  the  royal  patron  of  Leonardo  da 
Vinci  and  Andrea  del  Sarto,  was  particularly  marked  by  the 
adornment  of  Fontainebleau,  his  favorite  palace,  with  large 
and  elaborate  frescoes,  executed  chiefly  by  Italian  artists 
whom  he  summoned  to  his  court.  These  artists  and  their 
French  followers'  constituted  a  separate  band,  usually  spoken 
of  as  "the  school  of  Fontainebleau."  Most  of  the  frescoes 
have  perished,  and  none  were  of  any  great  value  as  works  of 
high  art.  They  were  begun  under  the  direction  of  Rosso  di 
Rossi,  called  Maitre  Roux,  But,  as  he  killed  himself  in  1541, 
a  Bolognese,  Francesco  Primaticcio,  was  sent  by  the  Duke  of 
Mantua  to  complete  the  gallery.  He  was  assisted  by  Nic- 
colo  dell'  Abbate.  Primaticcio  had  been  the  pupil  of  Giulio 
Romano,  and,  though  brilliant  in  coloring,  was  mannered  in 
design. 

Simon  Vouet,  born  in  Paris,  in  1590,  brings  us  down  to  the 


372 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


reign  of  Louis  XIII.  Vouet's  talents  were  early  visible.  At 
the  age  of  fourteen  he  was  a  facile  portrait-painter,  and  after- 
ward cultivated  his  abilities  by  travel  and  foreign  study.  He 
accompanied  the  French  embassy  to  Constantinople,  arjd 
subsequently  spent  fourteen  years  in  Italy,  where  he  was 
made  president  of  the  Academy  of  Rome,  and  imitated  the 
diverse  styles  of  Caravaggio,  Guido,  and  the  Venetians.  Re- 
called to  France,  he  was  appointed  painter  to  Louis  XIII., 
whose  portrait  he  has  left  us.  The  king  and  Cardinal  Riche- 
lieu employed  him  in  the  adornment  of  their  palaces,  as  well 
as  in  designing  the  royal  tapestries ;  and  his  pictures  and 
decorations  became  the  prevailing  Parisian  fashion.  Le 
Brun,  Mignard,  and  Le  Sueur,  were  among  the  pupils  who 
thronged  his  studio.  Several  of  his  paintings,  such  as  the 
"Presentation  in  the  Temple,"  and  "Roman  Charity,"  are  in 
the  Louvre ;  while  his  frescoes  still  ornament  some  churches. 
They  display  fertility  of  invention  and  some  picturesque 
effect,  but  his  too  rapid  work  is  marked  by  the  usual  faults  of 
weakness  of  color  and  want  of  finish.  He  died,  rich  and 
honored,  in  1649. 

Jacques  Callot,  son  of  a  noble  family  of  Nancy  (1592- 
1635)  is  rather  an  engraver  than  a  painter,  but  his  etchings 
were  so  universally  appreciated  that  he  should  take  a  promi- 
nent place  among  the  artists  of  his  country.  He  produced 
over  fifteen  hundred  prints  and  drawings,  among  which  his 
beggar-scenes,  his  "  Miseries  of  War,"  and  "  Temptation  of 
St.  Anthony,"  are  regarded  as  the  best.  The  composition  of 
his  works  is  marked  by  endless  variety.  "  No  corner  is  un- 
occupied, and  no  figure  without  its  meaning."  His  engrav- 
ings include  a  set  of  national  battles  and  sieges,  ordered  by 


PAINTING  IN  FRANCE. 

o  /  o 

Louis  XIII.  Viardot  ascribes  to  him  only  two  small  paint- 
ings on  copper—"  The  Military  Execution,"  at  Dresden,"  and 
the  "  Village  Fair,"  at  Vienna. 

Contemporary  with  Callot,  we  may  now  record  a  sketch 
of  the  two  artists  who  are  the  pride  and  glory  of  the  French 
school,  the  great  landscape-painters  Nicolas  Poussin  and 
Claude  Lorraine.  Of  Poussin 's  antecedents  we  can  say  but 
little.  He  was  born  at  Andely,  in  Normandy,  in  1594. 
Though  his'  parents  were  not  rich,  they  were  able  to  afford 
him  good  painting-masters,  and  many  advantages  of  educa- 
tion ;  but  he  did  not  succeed  in  gaining  popularity  in  Paris 
during  his  early  life,  and  at  thirty  years  of  age  he  decided 
upon  a  removal  to  Rome,  where  he  arrived,  after  a  trying 
journey,  poor  and  comparatively  unknown.  During  his 
sojourn  in  Italy,  he  not  only  studied  painting  under  Sacchi 
and  Domenichino,  but  made  himself  familiar  with  classic 
models  in  every  form  of  art,  and  became  thoroughly  versed 
in  anatomy,  logic,  philosophy,  and  history.  Such  themes 
were  congenial  to  his  profound  and  meditative  mind,  and, 
while  they  yielded  him  food  for  reflection,  were  all  reproduced 
in  his  pictures.  Hence  his  style,  though  sometimes  cold,  is 
always  extremely  thoughtful;  and  he  has  been  termed  the 
painter  of  intellect  no  less  than  the  first  delineator  of  heroic 
landscape.  More  justly  esteemed  abroad  than  at  home,  he 
found  influential  patrons  among  the  Roman  nobility,  and 
painted  for  Cardinal  Barberini  the  "  Death  of  Germanicus  " 
and  the  "  Capture  of  Jerusalem."  Hearing  of  his  reputation, 
Louis  XIII.  sent  for  him  to  return  to  France,  offered  him 
apartments  in  the  Tuileries  for  himself  and  wife,  and  remu- 
nerative and  honorable  employment ;  but  a  short  stay  at 


374 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


court  sufficed  to  weary  him,  and  he  went  back  to  his  beloved 
Rome,  where  he  remained  till  his  death  in  1665,  leading  a 
solitary  and  studious  but  contented  and  industrious  life. 

Some  of  his  productions  are  still  kept  in  Rome,  princi- 
pally in  private  palaces ;  but  the  majority  have  been  secured 
by  different  national  galleries.  His  own  prices  for  his  works 
were  very  moderate,  and  he  neither  obtained  nor  desired  a 
large  fortune ;  but  they  were  constantly  in  demand,  and  every 
year  increased  their  value.  His  preference  for  the  antique, 
and  for  the  introduction  of  classic  figures  among  his  forests, 
ruins,  and  grottoes,  somewhat  removes  him  from  modern 
sympathies,  and  gives  a  serious  and  often  austere  expression 
to  his  rural  scenes.  The  large-sized  mythological  subjects 
on  which  he  expended  so  much  care  are  now  his  least  pleasing 
compositions.  We  tire  of  his  sculpturesque  groups  with  their 
studied  attitudes  and  mannered  action  ;  neither  is  his  color- 
ing genial  or  glowing,  but  he  is  correct,  truthful,  and  sug- 
gestive to  a  degree  very  unusual  among  French  artists ; 
and  his  touch  is  like  his  character,  "  manly,  noble,  and 
expressively  simple."  Sometimes  he  displayed  much  grace 
and  feeling,  especially  in  his  sacred  pieces  and  ideal  land- 
scapes. The  Louvre,  of  course,  possesses  many  of  his  best 
efforts,  such  as  "Moses  saved  from  the  Waters,"  "  Eleazar 
and  Rebecca,"  "The  Four  Seasons,"  "The  Triumph  of 
Flora,"  and  the  "  Israelites  receiving  Manna  ;  "  but  none  is 
more  beautiful,  thoughtful,  and  poetic,  than  his  compara- 
tively small  and  sober  landscape  entitled  "  The  Arcadian 
Shepherds,"  of  which  we  will  quote  Charles  Blanc's  descrip- 
tion : 

"  In  a  wild,  woody  country,  the  sojourn  of  the  happiness 


PAINTING  IN  FRANCE. 

O  /  «* 

sung  by  the  poets,  shepherds  walking  with  their  loves  have 
discovered  under  a  thicket  of  trees  a  tomb,  with  this  half- 
effaced  inscription,  '  Et  in  Arcadia  ego  ! '  ('  And  I  too  am  in 
Arcadia!')-  These  words  issuing  from  the  tomb  sadden 
their  faces,  and  the  smiles  die  upon  their  lips.  A  young 
woman,  nonchalantly  leaning  upon  the  shoulder  of  her  lover, 
remains  mute  and  pensive,  and  seems  to  listen  to  this  saluta- 
tion from  the  dead. .  The  idea  of  death  has  also  plunged  into 
a  reverie  a  youth  who  leans  over  the  tomb  with  bowed  head, 
while  the  oldest  shepherd  points  out  with  his  finger  the  in- 
scription he  has  just  discovered.  The  landscape  that  com- 
pletes this  quiet  and  silent  picture  shows  reddened  leaves 
upon  the  arid  rocks,  hillocks  that  are  lost  in  the  vague  hori- 
zon, and  afar  off  something  ill-defined  is  perceived,  that  re- 
sembles the  sea."  This  composition  may  be  as  agreeably 
studied  in  its  widely-known  engraving  as  in  the  original 
painting,  which  at  first  sight  is  apt  to  disappoint  the  spectator. 
The  Hermitage  at  St.  Petersburg  owns  many  of  Poussin's 
works,  but  mostly  on  classical  themes ;  as  are  also  the  few 
at  Munich,  among  which  may  be  noticed  "  King  Midas  beg- 
ging the  Revocation  of  his  Gift  of  turning  every  Thing  to  Gold." 
The  National  Collection  of  London  contains  an  animated 
"Bacchanalian  Dance,"  "Phocion,"  and  a  few  other  good 
examples  ;  but  many  others  are  owned  by  private  individuals. 
The  Duke  of  Rutland  possesses  the  series  of  the  "  Seven 
Sacraments,"  while  "  Moses  striking  the  Rock  "  is  in  the 
Bridgewater  Gallery.  It  is  interesting  to  glance  at  Poussin's 
portrait  of  himself  in  the  Louvre,  at  the  age  of  fifty-six,  and 
notice  how  the  calm,  serious,  handsome,  though  somewhat 
severe  face  expresses  both  his  temper  and  style.  Another 
25 


37  6  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

Poussin  is  frequently  spoken  of  in  biographies,  who  should 
properly  be  called  Caspar  Dughet,  as  his  only  right  to  the 
appellation  of  Poussin  proceeds  from  his  having  been  the 
brother-in-law  and  pupil  of  Nicolas.  He  treated  landscapes 
in  a  manner  similar  to  his  master,  but  with  far  less  ability; 
and  the  tone  of  his  backgrounds  and  foliage  has  grown  dark 
and  disagreeable  by  age.  A  number  of  his  works  are  in  the 
Doria  Palace,  Rome ;  some  at  Florence ;  and  some  at  Dresden. 
But  of  all  landscape-painters  in  any  country,  none  has 
been  so  universally  appreciated  as  Claude  Gelee,  commonly 
known  as  Claude  Lorraine.  His  very  name  has  become 
synonymous  with  sunshine  and  serenity,  and  it  has  been  hap- 
pily said  that  his  pictures  recall  the  Golden  Age.  Ruskin  has 
indeed  labored  to  dispel  his  charm ;  but,  however  plausible 
may  be  a  theory,  few  travelers  are  proof  against  opposing 
facts.  Tender,  glowing  light  bathes  his  quiet  foregrounds, 
and  even  gleams  and  glimmers  in  his  shadows ;  it  shines  over 
his  rippling  seas,  and  sleeps  upon  the  misty  hills ;  it  is  the  life 
and  joy  of  his  every  landscape,  and  smiles  upon  the  beholder 
like  the  blessing  of  peace.  No  artist  has  so  excelled  in  at- 
mospheric effects ;  his  aerial  perspective  makes  us  feel  as  if 
we  were  gazing  from  a  window  upon  the  scene  itself.  Yet 
his  pictures  are  quite  ideal  in  the  points  of  combination  and 
arrangement.  He  did  not  pretend  to  copy  Nature  accu- 
rately, but  gave  his  imagination  full  play  among  the  beauties 
of  forests,  meadows,  and  sea-coasts  ;  selecting  and  distribut- 
ing according  to  his  own  will.  His  light,  shade,  and  color, 
were  most  masterly;  but  he  was  deficient  in  a  feeling  for 
form,  and  in  technical  correctness.  The  figures  in  his  land- 
scapes were  usually  executed  by  friendly  fellow-artists,  his 


PAINTING  IN  FRANCE. 

O  I  I 

own  skill  being  unequal  to  the  task.  He  even  found  it  diffi- 
cult to  draw  his  cows  and  sheep.  The  distinction  between 
the  leading  landscapists  of  the  seventeenth  century  has  been 
well  expressed  in  Thomson's  couplet : 

"  Whate'er  Lorraine  light-touched  with  softening  hue, 
Or  savage  Rosa  dashed,  or  learned  Poussin  drew." 

Although  the  style  of  Claude  is  thus  poetic,  the  opening 
of  his  career  was  prosaic  in  the  extreme.  He  was  born  in 
1600,  at  Champagne,  in  Lorraine.  Being  of  very  obscure 
parentage,  his  early  education  was  so  defective  that  he 
scarcely  knew  how  to  read  and  write.  When  very  young,  he 
was  apprenticed  to  a  pastry-cook,  and  according  to  some  au- 
thorities it  was  only  in  the  line  of  this  profession  that  he  first 
reached  Rome.  Soon  after  his  arrival  in  the  Eternal  City  he 
became  cook  to  an  artist,  who  took  an  interest  in  his  aspira- 
tions, and  for  whom  he  prepared  both  colors  and  dishes. 
Aided  not  only  by  his  master  but  by  his  own  irrepressible 
genius,  he  distinguished  himself  at  the  age  of  thirty  by  his 
attractive  etchings  and  landscapes,  and  proved  his  true  voca- 
tion. He  was  an  enthusiastic  and  patient  though  ideal  stu- 
dent of  Nature.  After  a  brief  visit  to  France  he  passed  his 
remaining  years  in  Rome,  where  he  died  in  1682,  leaving  be- 
hind him  many  works.  Among  these  was  a  most  valuable 
volume  of  two  hundred  drawings,  now  in  the  possession  of 
the  Duke  of  Devonshire.  He  himself  entitled  it  "  Liber 
Veritatis,"  or  "  Book  of  Truth,"  because  it  was  intended  to 
include  a  sketch  of  every  thing  which  he  had  accomplished 
during  his  life,  and  thus  to  guard  against  the  imitators  who 
would  have  stolen  his  laurels  by  selling  their  counterfeits 
as  genuine  "Claudes." 


378  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

Singularly  enough,  very  few  of  his  pictures  are  now  to  be 
found  in  Italy ;  the  best  of  those  being  in  the  Doria  Palace. 
He  is  largely  represented  in  England,  not  only  by  the  "  Em- 
barkation of  the  Queen  of  Sheba,"  the  "  Marriage  of  Isaac 
and  Rebekah,"  the  "  Narcissus,"  the  marine  pieces,  and  other 
specimens  in  the  National  Gallery,  but  by  many  beautiful 
works  in  the  houses  of  the  nobility,  especially  the  "  Worship 
of  the  Golden  Calf,"  and  the  "Sermon  on  the  Mount,"  owned 
by  the  Marquis  of  Westminster.  The  Dresden  Gallery  has 
two  fine  examples  of  his  style.  The  Hermitage  at  St.  Peters- 
burg prides  itself  upon  a  choice  collection,  particularly  the 
four  pendants  described  under  the  titles  of  "  Morning," 
"Noon,"  "  Evening,"  and  "Night."  Madrid  has  several  of 
equal  excellence ;  while  the  Louvre  boasts  some  Italian  and 
classical  landscapes,  and  some  exquisite  marine  views  in  his 
own  peculiar  manner — "  the  sea  in  the  distance,  shut  in  in  the 
foreground  by  palaces  and  gardens  which  form  a  port  in  per- 
spective, and  the  sun  beyond,  low  on  the  horizon,  illuminat- 
ing by  its  fire  the  surface  of  the  waves  which  are  agitated  by 
the  breeze." 

If  Claude  has  been  called  the  Raphael  of  landscape- 
painting,  another  of  his  contemporaries  claims  the  surname 
of  "  the  French  Raphael  "  in  classical  art.  We  may  not 
think  the  title  appropriate  in  either  case,  but  we  will  not 
quarrel  with  critics.  Paris  is  proud  of  Eustache  Le  Sueur, 
who  was  born  in  that  capital  in  1617,  never  left  France,  and 
died  in  his  native  city  in  1655.  He  was  the  son  of  an  arti- 
san, but  his  genius  soon  gave  him  deserved  eminence.  Like 
all  painters  of  his  time,  he  was  required  to  fresco  the  ceilings 
and  walls  of  the  fashionable  churches  and  mansions  of  the 


PAINTING  IN  FRANCE.  -?9 

nobility.  Thus  his  skill  was  tested  in  both  sacred  and  myth- 
ological scenes ;  but  he  had  evidently  an  enthusiastic  spirit 
which  preferred  fervent  monastic  representations,  such  as  his 
famous  series  of  the  "  History  of  St.  Bruno,"  his  masterpiece 
in  the  Louvre.  St.  Bruno  was  the  founder  of  the  Carthusian 
Order,  and  his  legend  can  be  nowhere  so  interestingly  studied 
as  in  these  twenty-two  large  pictures.  One  sees  him  listening 
to  the  preaching  of  Raymond,  the  hypocritical  canon  of 
Notre-Dame;  afterward  assisting  at  Raymond's  death  and 
burial ;  teaching  theology  ;  quitting  the  world  ;  dreaming  of 
his  vocation,  and  of  the  seven  stars  which  guide  him  to  the 
site  of  the  Chartreuse ;  distributing  his  goods  to  the  poor ; 
toiling  upward  to  the  desert  heights;  founding  his  monastery; 
welcoming  novices ;  summoned  by  the  pope ;  arriving  at 
Rome  ;  refusing  an  archbishopric ;  praying  in  his  cell ;  meet- 
ing Count  Roger ;  and  finally  dying  and  ascending  to  heaven. 
Among  these  we  should  particularly  notice  "  The  Funeral  of 
Raymond,"  who  raises  himself  from  his  coffin  during  the 
mass;  the  "Vocation  of  St.  Bruno;"  his  "Reception  of 
Novices,"  which  forms  an  expressive  and  dignified  group ;  his 
"  Rejection  of  the  Mitre,"  which  is  considered  to  be  the  best 
in  color  of  the  set ;  his  desolate  "  Journey  to  the  Chartreuse; " 
and,  lastly,  his  "  Death,"  which  is  dark  in  tone,  but  pathetic 
and  powerful.  Twenty-eight  other  authentic  pictures  hang 
in  the  Louvre,  especially  a  "  Martyrdom  of  St.  Lawrence," 
a  "  Preaching  of  St.  Paul  at  Ephesus,"  and  the  figures  of  the 
Muses.  The  six  paintings  which  portray  the  "  History  of 
Love  "  are  his  last  works.  They  have  been  removed  to  the 
Louvre  from  the  Hdtel  Lambert,  for  which  they  were  origi- 
nally executed. 


380  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS   OF  PAINTING. 

But  Le  Sueur,  though  well  patronized,  was  not  without 
rivals.  Charles  Le  Brun  was  jealous  of  his  merits,  and  he 
was  no  favorite  with  Colbert,  the  influential  minister  of  Louis 
XIV.  Le  Brun,  who  was  born  in  1619,  was  educated  for  a 
painter,  having  not  only  Vouet  for  a  master,  but  studying  at 
Fontainebleau  and  in  Italy.  He  was  presented  by  Mazarin 
to  the  king,  and  quickly  received  into  favor.  The  most 
important  labors  were  intrusted  to  his  taste.  The  great 
gallery  of  Versailles,  and  a  hall  in  the  Louvre,  were  dec- 
orated entirely  from  his  designs,  and  partly  by  his  own 
hand.  He  was  also,  constituted  Director  of  the  Gobelin 
Tapestries,  and  head  of  the  new  French  Academy  of  Paint- 
ing, which  was  founded  in  1648  by  Louis  XIV.  at  his  solici- 
tation. The  Louvre  possesses  twenty-six  of  his  works,  in- 
cluding the  series  of  the  "  Battles  of  Alexander ;  "  these  are 
comprised  in  five  pictures,  of  which  the  finest  is  "  The  Family 
of  Darius."  Le  Brun  also  attempted  many  sacred  subjects, 
the  earliest  of  which  is  a  "  Crucifixion,"  painted  from  a  dream 
of  Anne  of  Austria,  and  long  kept  by  her  in  her  oratory. 
Hosts  of  lamenting  angels  surround  the  cross,  at  whose  base 
lies  (inimitably  national !)  the  crown  of  France  on  a  blue- 
velvet  cushion.  Other  celebrated  specimens  in  the  Louvre 
are  the  Holy  Family  known  as  the  "  Benedicite,"  because  the 
figures  are  near  a  table  spread  for  a  frugal  meal,  while  the 
infant  Saviour  folds  his  hands  to  ask  a  blessing;  and  the 
"  Repentant  Magdalene,"  generally  supposed  to  be  the  por- 
trait of  Madame  de  la  Valliere  when  she  had  taken  refuge  in 
a  Carmelite  convent.  "  She  looks  up  to  heaven  with  tearful 
eyes,  and  is  in  the  act  of  tearing  off  a  rich  mantle ;  a  casket 
of  jewels  falls  overturned  at  her  feet."  Mrs.  Jameson,  how- 


THE  HOLY  FAMILY  (Le  Brun). 


p.  380. 


PAINTING  IN  FRANCE.  8l 

ever,  believes  that  Le  Brun's  real  portrait  of  Madame  de  la 
Valliere  is  at  Munich. 

The  style  of  Le  Brun  is  florid,  and  eminently  French. 
He  has  always  an  eye  for  scenic  effect  and  theatrical  pathos. 
An  able  critic  remarks  that  his  pictures  "bear  the  same 
relation  to  true  and  simple  grandeur  in  art  as  Louis  XIV., 
when  he  made  war  in  his  coach-and-six,  bore  as  a  general  to 
Julius  Caesar."  But  few  of  his  paintings  exist  outside  of 
Paris,  though  a  life-like  group  of  the  "  Jabach  Family  "  is  to  be 
found  in  the  Museum  of  Berlin.  As  he  advanced  in  age  his 
court  popularity  somewhat  declined;  and  before  his  death,, 
wKich  occurred  in  1690,  he  had  the  mortification  of  seeing 
himself  supplanted  by  Pierre  Mignard  in  the  regard  of  the 
king. 

Mignard,  born  at  Troyes,  in  1610,  was  another  artist  to 
whom  we  are  indebted  for  some  of  the  most  vivid  portraits 
of  the  reign  of  the  Grand  Monarch.  Like  Le  Brun  he  was 
instructed  by  Vouet  and  at  Fontainebleau,  and  had  the 
further  advantage  of  twenty-two  years  of  Italian  practice. 
Most  of  these  years  were  spent  at  Rome,  where  he  copied  the 
frescoes  of  the  Farnese  Palace,  and  thus  acquired  the  manner 
of  Annibale  Caracci.  Many  "  Virgins  "  which  he  completed 
at  that  time  are  still  known  as  "  Mignards."  But  his  sum- 
mons to  Paris  by  the  royal  order  was  followed  by  the  usual 
agreeable  results.  He  had  learned  one  important  secret  of 
portrait-painting — the  pleasant  combination  of  flattery  with 
truth  ;  and  the  king  and  all  the  dignitaries  of  the  court  were 
anxious  to  be  immortalized  by  his  brush.  We  must  regret 
that  more  of  these  portraits  are  not  placed  in  the  Louvre; 
but  among  the  few  there  preserved,  that  of  Madame  de  Main- 


382  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

tenon  is  of  much  historic  interest.  In  the  same  gallery  are 
several  sacred  compositions,  such  as  "  St.  Luke  painting  the 
Virgin,"  and  "  The  Madonna  of  the  Grapes."  The  fine  por- 
trait of  Maria  Mancini,  niece  of  Mazarin,  has  been  removed 
to  Berlin.  He  decorated  the  Palace  of  St.  Cloud,  destroyed 
in  the  last  war,  was  created  a  noble  by  the  king,  and  at  last 
succeeded  Le  Brun  in  his  office.  His  largest  work  was  on 
the  cupola  of  Val-de-Grace,  where  he  represented  a  colossal 
"  Paradise,"  with  figures  three  times  the  size  of  life.  His 
pictures  are  soft,  and  rather  too  highly  colored ;  graceful, 
vivacious,  and  exaggerated.  He  died  in  Paris,  at  the  age  of 
eighty-five.  His  elder  brother  Nicolas  was  also  a  portrait- 
painter,  while  his  nephew  Pierre  was  a  favorite  of  Maria 
Theresa. 

Of  the  portraits  of  Hyacinth  Rigaud  (1659-1743)  we  have 
better  opportunities  of  judging.  It  is  true  that  out  of  some 
hundreds  of  his  pictures  the  Louvre  only  gives  us  eleven ; 
but  these  are  most  interesting  and  characteristic.  Best  of  all 
is  his  full-length  portrait  of  Bossuet,  of  which  Waagen  ob- 
serves :  "  The  very  opposite  of  Fe"nelon,  he  stands  there  with 
the  full  consciousness  of  his  own  superior  intellect ;  the  light 
is  strong;  the  painting  warm  and  careful,  and  the  effect 
powerful,  though  somewhat  spotty."  Rigaud  has  been  en- 
titled the  French  Vandyck,  from  the  dignified  and  noble 
expression  which  he  imparts  to  his  figures;  but  the  ample 
robes  and  flowing  wigs  of  the  period  had  doubtless  a  little  to 
do  with  this  imposing  aspect.  Some  of  his  works  are  owned 
in  England,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  Dulwich  collection. 

But  genre  painting,  so  universal  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury in  Germany  and  Holland,  found  also  its  representative 


PAINTING  IN  FRANCE.  -g 

at  the  court  of  France.     Louis  XIV.  had  no  admiration  for 
low  life.     When  he  saw  the  scenes  of  Teniers  and  Ostade  in 
his  gallery,  he  exclaimed,  "  Otez-moi  de  Ib  ces  magots!"      It 
was  therefore  an  elegant  and  fastidious  variety  of  genre  which 
French  taste  required,  and  which  was  so  exactly  supplied  by 
Antoine  Watteau  that  it  was  subsequently  called  the  "  Pom- 
padour genre."    He  brings  before  us  rural  fetes,  concerts,  and 
Arcadian  pastorals,  where  all  the  shepherds  are  courtiers,  and 
the  shepherdesses  coquetting  maids  of  honor.     They  dance 
beneath   the   trees,   with   their   powdered  wigs   and    head- 
dresses ;  their  enormous  fans,  hoops,  and  parasols ;  their  silks 
and  laces,  and  ribbons  of  pink  and  blue.     Nature  is  a  trim, 
gay  park,  and  life  a  perpetual  picnic !     Yet  his  paintings  are 
animated  and  brilliant,  his  colors  bright  and  sunny,  for  he 
was  a  lover  of  Rubens  and  Paul  Veronese ;  and  one  cannot 
help  being  amused  and  pleased  by  his  pretty,  silly  pictures. 
His  life  was  far  less  cheerful  than  his  works.     He  was  born 
at  Valenciennes,  in  1684,  of  a  humble  family,  struggled  into 
notice  through  poverty  and  hard  study,  and  died  of  con- 
sumption before  he  was  thirty-seven.     His  works  are  com- 
paratively rare  in  Paris,  but  are  found  in  most  Continental 
collections,  and  in  private  English  galleries.     He  left  a  host 
of  imitators  who  exaggerated  his  faults,  and  never  reached 
his  beauties. 

Of  a  Very  different  type  was  Claude  Joseph  Vernet  (1714- 
1789),  the  eminent  marine  painter  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XV. 
He  delighted  in  large  sea-pieces,  and  shows  us  the  ocean  "  in 
sun  and  moon,  in  calm  and  tempest,  in  fog  and  fire."  Charles 
Blanc  says  of  him :  "  Without  knowing  it,  Vernet  resolved  so 
well  the  various  problems  presented  by  marine  subjects  that 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

an  entire  book  has  been  composed  from  the  observations 
suggested  by  his  versatile  talent."  The  Louvre  devotes  an 
apartment  to  his  paintings,  foremost  among  which  are  the 
different  "Views  of  the  Principal  French  Seaports,"  exe- 
cuted by  command  of  the  king.  Vernet  was  an  amiable  and 
accomplished  man,  and  an  intimate  friend  of  the  musical 
composer  Pergolesi.  As  an  artist  he  certainly  appreciated 
his  own  abilities,  for  in  speaking  of  Claude,  Ruysdael,  Cuyp, 
and  Backhuysen,  he  modestly  remarks,  "  Inferior  to  each  of 
the  great  painters  in  one  part,  I  surpass  them  in  all  the 
others." 

Jean  Baptiste  Greuze,  born  in  Burgundy,  in  1724,  though 
denied  admission  to  the  Royal  Academy  during  his  lifetime, 
has  always  been  one  of  the  most  admired  of  French  painters. 
His  figures  of  young  girls  and  female  heads  are  particularly 
popular.  They  may  be  often  affected  and  sentimental ;  but 
they  are  fair  and  delicate  in  their  flesh-tints,  expressive  in 
their  features,  and  beautiful  in  their  finish.  His  moral  tone 
is  purer  and  simpler  than  that  of  the  other  artists  of  his  gen- 
eration. The  first  work  which  he  gave  to  the  public  was 
"  The  Father  of  a  Family  explaining  the  Bible  to  his  Chil- 
dren " — a  most  unusual  subject  at  that  day.  "  The  Broken ' 
Pitcher,"  " The  Village  Bride,"  and  "The  Paternal  Curse," 
may  be  considered  his  masterpieces  in  the  Louvre.  He  died 
on  the  2ist  of  March,  1805. 

With  Joseph  Marie  Vien  (1716—1809)  begins  a  reform  in 
French  art,  brilliantly  completed  by  his  pupil  David.  Vien's 
own  abilities  were  not  great,  as  may  be  seen  by  his  four  pict- 
ures in  the  Louvre,  the  best  of  which  is  "  The  Sleeping  Her- 
mit ; "  but  he  was  enterprising  and  far-sighted,  and  taught 


PAINTING  IN  FRANCE.  -g- 

his  pupils  what  ought  to  be  done,  even  though  he  himself 
could  not  do  it.     This  success  was  reserved  for  David. 

Jacques  Louis  David,  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the 
later  French  school,  was  born  in  Paris,  in  1748.  He  was  the 
son  of  a  tradesman,  but  was  educated  by  his  uncle,  and  placed 
under  the  tuition  of  Vien.  There  he  evinced  his  passion  for 
the  antique  and  the  classical — a  passion  which  lay  at  the 
root  of  all  his  efforts  in  art,  and  entirely  influenced  his  choice 
and  treatment  of  subjects.  This  taste  was  soon  strengthened 
by  five  years'  practice  in  Rome,  during  which  he  industri- 
ously studied  ruins,  statuary,  and  the  best  Greek  models.  On 
his  return  to  France  he  was,  in  1783,  after  exhibiting  his 
"  Belisarius,"  admitted  to  the  Academy,  which  had  before 
refused  him  its  honors,  and  nominated  painter  to  the  king. 
"  The  Oath  of  the  Horatii,"  now  in  the  Louvre,  was  painted 
for  Louis  XVI.  in  1784,  and  produced  a  profound  sensation 
in  Paris.  It  was  soon  followed  by  "  Brutus  receiving  the 
Bodies  of  his  Sons."  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution 
David  became  a  fierce  republican,  and  was  the  friend  of 
Marat  and  Robespierre.  He  painted  "  Marat's  Assassination 
by  Charlotte  Corday,"  and  we  have  still  preserved  to  us  his 
very  large  sketch  for  an  oil-painting,  intending  to  represent 
the  revolutionary  meeting  at  the  Jeu  de  Paume,  Versailles. 
Four  life-sized  heads  in  the  picture  are  finished.  One  of 
these  is  the  portrait  of  Mirabeau. 

Released  from  the  imprisonment  into  which  he  had  been 
thrown  at  the  death  of  Robespierre,  David  painted  "  The 
Sabine  Women,"  which  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  gems  of  the 
French  department  of  the  Louvre.  Napoleon,  upon  his  ac- 
cession to  power,  recognized  the  genius  of  the  artist,  and 


386  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

made  him  painter  to  the  empire.  He  is  distinguished  for  his 
two  famous  pictures  of  this  period,  the  very  large  "  Coro- 
nation of  Josephine,"  for  which  he  was  paid  an  amount 
equivalent  to  twenty-one  thousand  dollars ;  and  the  spirited 
"  Napoleon  crossing  the  Alps,"  so  often  engraved  and  photo- 
graphed. Of  this  last,  one  of  his  critics  says  :  "  It  is  ideal  in 
more  ways  than  one ;  for  we  know  that  the  First  Consul,  in- 
stead of  prancing  on  a  charger  at  the  edge  of  a  precipice, 
really  rode  over  on  a  donkey."  The  "  Leonidas  at  Thermop- 
ylae "  was  David's  last  composition  in  P^ris ;  for  at  the  resto- 
ration of  the  Bourbons  he  was  exiled,  and  died  at  Brussels 
in  December,  1825. 

His  classic  style  has  been  condemned  for  its  lack  of 
warmth,  and  the  studied  attitudes  of  its  sculpturesque  figures, 
while  his  coloring  is  often  cold  and  opaque ;  but  his  drawing 
is  energetic  and  masterly,  and  he  displays  great  simplicity, 
correctness,  and  dignity  of  form.  He  was  also  a  good  por- 
trait-painter, as  may  be  realized  by  an  inspection  of  his  own 
likeness,  and  those  of  Pope  Pius  VII.  and  Madame  Recamier, 
in  the  Louvre. 

A  band  of  excellent  pupils  continued  David's  fame. 
Among  them  are  mentioned  Girodet  de  Roucy  Trioson  (1767- 
1824),  whose  "  Deluge  "  is  extravagant  and  ridiculous,  but 
whose  "  Interment  of  Atala  "  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
French  pictures;  and  Jean  Antoine  Gros  (1771-1835),  who 
was  life-like  and  forcible,  and  less  fond  of  the  antique.  The 
Louvre  has  his  "  Battle  of  Eylau,"  and  "  Napoleon  visiting 
the  Plague  Hospital  at  Jaffa."  Jean  Auguste  Ingres  (1780- 
1867)  inherited  the  classic  tastes  of  his  master.  A  number 
of  his  works  are  in  the  Luxembourg  Museum,  or  have  been 


PAINTING  IN  FRANCE. 


387 


lately  removed  to  the  Louvre.  "  The  Apotheosis  of  Homer," 
formerly  a  ceiling  decoration;  "Christ  delivering  the  Keys 
to  Peter^  "  "  Joan  of  Arc,"  and  "  Stratonice,"  at  Aix,  espe- 
cially deserve  notice.  But  the  most  renowned  of  David's 
pupils  was  Francois  Gerard,  born  in  1770,  during  the  resi- 
dence of  his  father  at  Rome.  He  was  a  fine  portrait  as  well 
as  historical  painter,  and  executed  the  portraits  of  Napoleon 
and  his  family,  including  the  young  King  of  Rome.  Sub- 
sequently he  also  painted  Louis  XVIII.  and  many  of  his 
court.  In  recognition  of  his  services  the  king  created  him  a 
baron.  His  most  celebrated  compositions  are  the  "  Entry 
of  Henry  IV.  into  Paris,"  and  "  Cupid  and  Psyche,"  in  the 
Louvre.  He  died  in  1837. 

Pierre  Prud'hon  (1760-1823)  abandoned  the  fashionable 
classicism  to  return  to  sacred  subjects.  His  "  Crucifixion " 
and  "  Assumption  of  the  Virgin  "  are  entirely  in  mediaeval 
style,  though  imbued  with  French  sentiment.  But  his  most 
able  work  is  "  Justice  and  Vengeance  pursuing  Crime,"  hung, 
like  the  masterpieces  of  most  French  artists,  in  the  Louvre. 
Prud'hon  was  the  friend  of  Canova,  and  the  instructor  of 
Constance  Mayer. 

Madame  Elisabeth  Louise  Vige"e  Lebrun  (1755-1842)  is 
familiar  to  us  through  her  beautiful  and  vivacious  portrait  of 
herself,  seated  at  her  easel,  in  the  Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence. 
Another  likeness  of  herself  and  daughter,  in  the  Louvre,  is  a 
very  pleasing  picture.  Her  maiden  name  was  Vige"e,  but  she 
married  a  Monsieur  Lebrun  at  a  very  early  age.  She  trav- 
eled through  all  parts  of  Europe,  and  was  everywhere  re- 
ceived with  distinction.  She  was  a  member  of  the  Academies 
of  Rome,  Parma,  St.  Petersburg,  Berlin,  Geneva,  Rouen,  and 


388 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


Paris ;  and  is  said  to  have  painted  six  hundred  and  sixty-two 
portraits  or  fancy  pieces,  and  more  than  one  hundred  and 
fifty  landscapes. 

Jean  Baptiste  Isabey,  of  Nancy  (1767-1855),  is  known  as 
a  miniature-painter  of  the  empire,  who  obtained  fashion  and 
celebrity.  He  began  by  adorning  "  lids  of  snuff-boxes  and 
coat-buttons ; "  but  developed  higher  talents  at  the  court  of 
Louis  XVI.,  and  especially  under  Napoleon,  of  whom  he 
executed  more  than  two  hundred  miniatures.  The  works  of 
his  son,  who  became  a  graphic  marine  painter,  are  to  be  seen 
in  the  Luxembourg. 

Francois  Marie  Granet  (1775-1849),  a  clever  delineator 
of  "  interiors,"  belongs  to  the  same  epoch.  The  "  Crypt  of 
the  Church  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi,"  in  the  Louvre,  is  his 
most  powerful  picture. 

Horace  Vernet,  who  was  born  in  Paris  in  1789,  and  died 
in  the  same  city  in  1863,  was  a  grandson  of  Claude  Joseph 
Vernet,  and  a  rapid,  brilliant,  and  prolific  artist,  whose  abili- 
ties were  enhanced  by  Italian  study  and  Eastern  travel.  He 
was  a  favorite  with  Napoleon  I.,  who  presented  him  in  1814 
with  the  cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  as  a  reward  for  his 
bravery  at  the  Barriere  de  Clichy.  He  afterward  painted 
"  The  Defense  of  Clichy,"  and  is  famous  for  his  huge  battle- 
scenes,  most  of  which  are  collected  at  Versailles.  The  Lu- 
xembourg also  contained  his  "  Massacre  of  the  Mamelukes," 
and  a  large  picture  of  "  The  Meeting  of  Michael  Angelo  and 
Raphael  at  the  Entrance  of  the  Vatican,"  where  Michael 
Angelo  is  reported  to  have  exclaimed  to  his  rival,  "  You 
march  surrounded  with  a  suite,  like  a  general !  "  and  Raphael 
retorted,  "You  go  alone,  like  a  hangman."  Vernet 's  treat- 


PAINTING  IN  FRANCE.  3gg 

ment  of  his  subjects  is  naturally  broad  and  striking,  without 
great  elaboration ;  his  coloring  is  vivid,  but  not  durable ;  his 
grouping  dexterous  and  effective,  and  his  horses  spirited  and 
life-like.  He  occasionally  undertook  marine  pieces,  as  in  the 
"  Storm  at  Sea,"  at  the  Hague ;  and  it  is  said  he  once  per- 
suaded a  devoted  younger  brother  to  allow  himself  to  be  tied 
to  a  pole,  and  "  plentifully  watered  at  intervals  from  a  water- 
ing-can," in  order  that  the  artist  might  faithfully  represent 
the  drenched  and  wretched  condition  of  a  shipwrecked  sailoi, 
clinging  to  a  spar. 

Jean  Louis  Ge"ricault,  born  at  Roueri,  1791,  was  educated 
in  the  strictly  classic  taste  which  characterized  the  followers 
of  David ;  but  his  originality  burst  such  imposed  fetters,  and 
forcibly  portrayed  the  real  and  actual.  Yet,  as  reality  in  the 
minds  of  his  countrymen  is  always  viewed  through  the 
medium  of  French  imagination,  we  need  not  wonder  that  his 
conception  of  what  is  true  to  Nature  differs  so  widely  from 
that  of  his  Dutch  contemporaries.  The  change  of  artistic, 
principles  which  he  announced  was  warmly  received  by  the 
public ;  but  his  own  life  was  too  short  to  fully  demonstrate 
its  success.  He  died  at  the  age  of  thirty-five.  "  The  Raft 
of  the  Medusa,"  in  the  Louvre,  may  give  some  idea  of  his 
striking  talents.  It  is  a  large  picture,  representing  the  crew 
of  the  shipwrecked  vessel  Me"duse  floating  on  an  immense 
raft  which  nearly  fills  the  entire  canvas.  The  dead  and  dy- 
ing lie  upon  the  raft  in  heart-rending  attitudes  of  exhaus- 
tion and  despair ;  but  the  survivors  in  frantic  joy  perceive  a 
distant  sail;  and  it  is  this  moment  just  preceding  their 
deliverance  which  the  painter  has  chosen  for  his  terrible  arid 
thrilling  composition. 


39° 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


With  the  protest  of  GeVicault  classic  art  lost  its  last  ex- 
piring hold  upon  the  favor  of  France.  A  more  natural  and 
modern  style  thenceforth  filled  its  place.  Among  the  artists 
born  at  this  epoch  we  may  here  mention  Leopold  Robert 
(1794-1835),  sometimes  called  the  rival  of  Ge"ricault,  whose 
Italian  landscapes,  particularly  "  The  Reapers  of  the  Cam- 
pagna,"  are  much  admired ;  but  the  great  masters  Delaroche 
and  Delacroix  we  shall  number  among  the  painters  of  the 
nineteenth  century. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

.     PAINTING     IN     ENGLAND. 

CHAPTER  by  chapter  we  have  been  advancing  from  the 
dim,  religious  twilight  of  early  art  to  the  common  light  of 
day  in  which  our  modern  pictures  are  painted.  English 
painting  knows  no  past,  but  rejoices  in  the  present,  and  as- 
pires to  the  future.  None  of  the  Continental  galleries,  with 
the  exception  of  that  of  St.  Petersburg,  ever  hints  at  an  Eng- 
lish school ;  and  yet  there  is  no  country  in  the  world  where 
the  growth  of  a  hundred  years  has  developed  such  true  gen- 
ius. 

Previous  to  the  seventeenth  century  the  few  pictures  in 
the  British  Isles  were  all  of  foreign  origin,  either  purchased 
abroad  by  monarchs  or  noblemen,  or  executed  by  strangers 
whom  offers  of  patronage  attracted  to  the  English  court. 
Such  works  still  remain  in  royal  palaces,  or  among  the  family 
portraits  and  collections  of  old  and  wealthy  houses.  The 
reign  of  Henry  VIII.  brought  over  Holbein,  and  artists  of 
lesser  note,  who  found  a  wide  field  and  ready  compensation 
for  the  exercise  of  portraiture.  Queen  Elizabeth  and  Queen 
Mary  gladly  welcomed  painters  of  Flanders,  Holland,  and 
Spain,  to  their  shores,  and  also  recognized  the  talents  of  two 

English  citizens,   Nicholas   Hilliard  and  Isaac  Oliver,  who 
26 


392 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


in  the  first  half  of  the  seventeenth  century  became  quite  re- 
nowned for  their  miniatures.  Indeed,  national  admiration/ 
appeared  restricted  to  portraits  till  the  accession  of  Charles  I., 
who  had  a  profound  appreciation  of  art,  and  was  himself  a 
good  drawer  and  designer.  He  desired  to  form  a  large  gal- 
lery of  noble  compositions,  and  was  censured  for  extrava- 
gance by  a  populace  who  could  not  understand  the  practical 
value  of  a  fresco  by  Raphael,  or  a  cartoon  by  Michael  An- 
gelo.  Yet  King  Charles  improved  his  brief  opportunity  by 
paying  eighty  thousand  pounds  for  the  Duke  of  Mantua's 
famous  collection,  including  Mantegna's  "  Triumph  of  Julius 
Caesar,"  now  at  Hampton  Court ;  and  also  secured  more  than 
twenty  of  Titian's  works,  thirteen  of  Paul  Veronese's,  seven- 
teen of  Tintoretto's,  and  many  of  other  Venetian  artists,  as 
well  as  specimens  of  Raphael  and  Correggio.  He  gave  lib- 
eral commissions  to  Rubens,  induced  him  to  spend  a  year  in 
England,  and  finally  persuaded  Vandyck  to  accept  the  posi- 
tion of  court-painter,  which  so  identified  him  with  that  par- 
ticular epoch  of  history  that  we  think  of  him  even  more 
naturally  as  an  English  artist  than  as  a  Fleming.  Family 
pieces  were  then  the  prevailing  fashion,  and  we  can  well  com- 
prehend the  enthusiasm  excited  by  Vandyck's  splendid  group 
of  the  "  Wilton  Family,"  which  shares  with  the  "  Arundel 
Family  "  and  Holbein's  "  More  Family  "  a  world-wide  re- 
nown. Something  over  five  hundred  pounds  was  the  cus- 
tomary price  paid  for  these  large  and  most  interesting  com- 
positions, which  often  include  as  many  as  ten  figures,  with 
highly-finished  accessories.  Neither  did  the  passion  for  por- 
traits die  with  the  Cavaliers.  Even  Cromwell  desired  to  sit 
to  Robert  Walker,  whose  picture  of  him  exists  at  Warwick 


PAINTING  IN  ENGLAND.  ,0, 

393 

Castle.  Another  Cromwell  portrait  was  completed  by  Sir 
Peter  Lely,  afterward  court-painter  to  Charles  II.  He  was 
specially  famous  for  his  success  in  transferring  female  beauty 
to  canvas,  and  no  lady  of  the  period  was  content  till  LJely 
had  immortalized  her  charms.  A  native  of  Westphalia,  and 
emigrating  from  Haarlem  at  the  age  of  twenty-three  or  twen- 
ty-four, with  no  rightful  title  but  that  of  Van  der  Faes,  Peter 
Lely  took  up  his  residence  in  England,  was  knighted  by 
Charles  II.,  and  accumulated  an  immense  fortune  as  the  re- 
sult of  his  aristocratic  labors.  Godfrey  Kneller,  the  son  of 
an  architect  of  Lubeck,  followed  his  example,  and  acquired 
even  greater  reputation  in  the  same  line ;  the  duration  of  his 
favor  continuing  through  the  reigns  of  Charles  II.,  James  II., 
William  and  Mary,  and  George  I.,  who  made  him  a  baronet 
in  1715.  He  could  say  that  he  had  been  called  upon  to  paint 
nine  kings  and  queens — Louis  XIV.  of  France,  Charles  VI. 
of  Spain,  and  Peter  the  Czar  of  Russia,  having  been  added 
to  the  list  of  English  royalty.  Great  Britain  owes  another 
debt  of  gratitude  to  Kneller  for  his  instrumentality  in  the 
preservation  of  the  cartoons  of  Raphael  now  in  Kensington 
Museum.  They  had  been  among  the  acquisitions  of  Charles 
I.,  but  in  the  changes  of  the  kingdom  were  neglected  and 
forgotten,  till,  through  Kneller's  influence,  William  was  in- 
duced to  mount  them  properly  in  Hampton  Court. 

Artistic  tastes,  so  slowly  cultivated,  began,  under  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  Georges,  to  act  in  new  directions.  A  sudden 
demand  for  the  importation  of  foreign  pictures  flooded  the 
country  with  third-rate  compositions  of  the  declining  Italian 
schools,  or  with  worthless  imitations  of  older  masters.  Red- 
grave quotes  from  a  popular  <nagazine  which  complained  that 


394 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


"  monster  Parmagianos,  horrific  Sebastian  del  Piombos,  hid- 
eous Domenichinos,  appalling  Rubenses,  spectre  Guidos,  assas- 
sin-like Caravaggios,  and  dismal  Rembrandts,  were  knocked 
down  at  five  hundred  guineas  a  head,"  and  that  "  questions 
of  paternity  in  art  were  as  difficult  as  in  law."  The  canons 
of  criticism  justified  the  public  standard.  The  blacker  the 
painting,  the  higher  the  price.  "  A  good  picture,"  said  Sir 
George  Beaumont,  "  like  a  good  fiddle,  should  be  brown." 
The  aspirations  of  British-born  artists  were  also  uplifted  far 
above  the  portrait-style,  and  palace  walls  and  ceilings  were 
ambitiously  decorated  with  "  acres  of  allegory  "  of  the  most 
metaphorical,  though  scarcely  classical,  description.  The 
ocean,  for  example,  was  represented  "  as  a  surly  old  fellow, 
with  a  black  beard,  long  and  uncombed  locks,  quite  naked, 
save  girt  about  the  middle  with  a  ship's  sail ;  laying  his  leg 
over  a  dolphin's  back ;  in  his  hand  the  stern  of  a  ship,  anchor, 
oar,  or  the  like."  Yet  even  into  the  midst  of  such  absurd 
efforts  a  spark  of  genius  dropped,  and  Sir  James  Thornhill, 
the  predecessor  of  Hogarth  and  Reynolds,  began  to  teach  his 
countrymen  something  of  the  true  theory  of  art. 

Thornhill's  precepts  were  better  than  his  practice.  He 
covered  cupolas  and  ceilings,  as  may  still  be  observed  in  the 
hall  of  Greenwich  Hospital,  with  a  mixture  of  history  and 
mythology,  very  complimentary  to  the  English  sovereigns,  but 
not  particularly  conducive  to  the  progress  of  painting.  He 
opened,  however,  an  art-academy,  which  educated  many 
promising  students,  among  them  the  youthful  Hogarth,  who 
became  Thornhill's  son-in-law,  much  against  the  latter's  will. 

William  Hogarth,  the  first  great  English  painter,  born  in 
London,  in  1697,  passed  his  early  years  as  apprentice  to  a 


PAINTING  IN  ENGLAND. 

<5yj 

silversmith,  but  on  reaching  the  age  of  twenty-one  changed 
his  profession  to  that  of  an  engraver  on  copper  for  booksell- 
ers, which  he  long  found  hard  work  and  poor  pay.     It  was 
not  till  eight  years  afterward  that  his  illustrations  for  Butler's 
"  Hudibras  "  brought  him  favorably  into  notice  ;  but,  mean- 
while, other  projects  occupied  his  mind  :  he  entered  Thorn- 
hill's  academy,  only  intending  to  cultivate  his  talents  as  a 
portrait-painter,  but  displayed  such  peculiar  power  in  genre 
subjects  that  Thornhill,  after  his  marriage  with  his  daughter, 
advised  him  to  support  her  with  such  efforts  of  his  brush. 
This  advice  bore  fruit  in  the  series  of  "  The  Harlot's  Prog- 
ress," brought   out   in    1734,  and   succeeded    the   following 
year  by  the  celebrated  set  of  pictures  known  as  "  The  Rake's 
Progress,"  which   Hogarth  subsequently  engraved   in    eight 
admirable  plates.     Ten  years  elapsed  before  the  appearance 
of  the  still  more  excellent  series  of  "  Mariage  a  la  Mode," 
which  is  preserved  in  the  London  Gallery,  and  constitutes 
his  surest  title  to  fame.     This  depicts  the  union  of  a  profli- 
gate husband  with  a  fashionable  and  faithless  wife,  from  the 
signing  of  the  wedding  contract  to  the  violent  death  of  the 
earl  and  the  suicide  of  the  countess.     All  Hogarth's  best 
points  are  here  concentrated  :    his  bitter   wit,  the   terrible 
strength  of  his  irony,  his  perfect  truth  of  detail,  and  the  ex- 
ceeding accuracy  of  finish,  in  which  he  rivals  even  Teniers. 
Yet  the  whole  six  compositions  brought  him  little  more  than 
a  hundred  pounds ;  though  every  interior  and  every  group  of 
figures  is  a  study  worthy  of  the  ablest  Flemish  artists,  and  an 
exquisite  satire  upon  the  vices  and  follies  of  the  day.     The 
breakfast-parlor,  with  last  night's  card-tables  in  the  distance ; 
the  countess's  dressing-room,  prepared  for  her  morning  levee ; 


396  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

the  earl's  bedroom,  with  its  blazing  fire;  and  the  father's 
fine  apartments,  hung  with  caricatures  of  the  popular  foreign 
paintings  which  Hogarth  used  to  call  "  the  works  of  the  black 
masters,"  are  all  like  pages  from  some  graphic  novel  of  Field- 
ing or  Thackeray,  who  delineated  in  words  the  society  which 
the  artist  shows  us  in  color.  This  was  ever  the  bent  of  Ho- 
garth's genius.  He  might  fail  as  a  painter  of  history,  but 
never  as  a  painter  of  life.  He  loved  to  "  point  a  moral  "  as 
well  as  "  adorn  a  tale ;  "  and  the  moral  was  always  a  dra- 
matic warning  against  vice.  Such  are  his  "  Gin  Lane  "  and 
"  Idle  and  Industrious  Apprentices,"  while  his  hearty  enjoy- 
ment of  fun  finds  expression  in  his  "  Election  Scenes,"  his 
"  Distressed  Poet,"  "  Dancing  Academy,"  and  other  humor- 
ous compositions.  Though  comparatively  few  may  have  ac- 
cess to  the  original  pictures,  yet  the  engravings  of  his  works, 
many  of  which  were  etched  by  himself,  can  give  pleasure  to 
all.  His  own  portrait  will  be  seen  in  the  National  Gallery, 
London,  sitting  with  a  volume  of  Swift  in  his  hand,  and  his 
dog  Trump  beside  him.  Toward  the  close  of  his  life  he 
attempted  authorship,  and  wrote  a  treatise  entitled  "  The 
Analysis  of  Beauty ;  "  but  his  pen,  as  might  have  been  ex- 
pected, proved  inferior  to  his  pencil.  He  died  in  London 
in  1764,  in  the  sixty-eighth  year  of  his  age,  leaving  neither 
children  nor  pupils. 

Though  the  distinctive  art-history  of  Great  Britain  really 
begins  with  Hogarth,  it  is  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  born  in  1723, 
who  is  popularly  considered  the  founder  of  the  English  school 
of  painting,  as  he  was  certainly  its  most  characteristic  repre- 
sentative. Hogarth  is  strictly  individual,  but  Sir  Joshua  is 
undoubtedly  suggestive  of  the  typical  Englishman.  His 


PAINTING  IN  ENGLAND.  —. 

father  was  master  of  the  grammar-school  in  Plympton,  Dev- 
onshire, and  wished  his  son  to  study  medicine ;  but  yielded 
to  the  boy's  unconquerable  preferences,  and  placed  him  un- 
der the  instruction  of  an  artist  named  Hudson,  to  acquire  all 
possible  skill  in  portraiture.  Hudson  was  but  a  poor  imitator 
of  Sir  Godfrey  Kneller,  and  Reynolds  remained  with  him 
only  two  years,  returning  to  Devonshire,  where  he  exercised 
his  profession  with  but  moderate  success,  till  his  father's 
death,  in  1746.  He  then  settled  in  London,  till  a  Devon- 
shire naval  friend,  in  command  of  a  vessel,  took  him,  in  1749, 
to  Italy,  where  he  traveled  three  years,  and  learned  to  color 
and  design  with  brilliancy  and  grace.  Thus  improved,  he 
revisited  London,  gave  public  proof  of  his  remarkable  genius, 
won  reputation  and  fortune,  made  friends  with  Dr.  Johnson, 
Goldsmith,  Garrick,  and  other  celebrities,  whom  he  enter- 
tained at  his  delightful  house  in  Leicester  Square,  where  his 
sister  and  his  pretty  nieces  long  acted  as  hostesses ;  and  was 
at  last,  in  1768,  appointed  President  of  the  Royal  academy 
of  Painting,  and  knighted  by  George  III.  His  "  Fifteen  Dis- 
courses," delivered  before  the  students  of  this  academy,  are 
still  appreciated,  both  for  their  literary  and  artistic  merits,  as 
is  also  his  "  Tour  through  Flanders  and  Holland,"  in  which 
he  gives  an  able  criticism  and  analysis  of  Rubens's  style  and 
works.  His  admiration  for  Michael  Angelo  was  excessive, 
though  he  wisely  forebore  to  copy  him  as  a  model.  Indeed, 
his  abilities  did  not  lie  in  the  historical  or  sacred  line ;  for, 
though  his  "  Holy  Family "  is  very  fine  from  an  English 
stand-point,  and  his  scenes  of  history  and  mythology  were  not 
only  lauded  by  the  nation,  but  purchased  by  the  Empress 
Catharine  of  Russia,  yet  they  could  never  be  so  popular 


398  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

as  his  heads  of  children,  "Little  Mob-Cap,"  "Pickaback," 
"  Snake  in  the  Grass,"  "  Age  of  Innocence,"  and  "  Puck  ;  "  or 
his  wonderful  portraits,  of  which  England  is  so  justly  proud 
He  had,  like  Vandyck,  the  faculty  of  catching  the  best  ex- 
pression of  his  sitters,  making  them  all  "  fair  women  and 
brave  men."  His  industry  was  surprising ;  he  could  finish 
an  ordinary  likeness  in  four  hours,  and  sent,  during  his  Lon- 
don residence,  two  hundred  and  forty^five  works  to  the 
Royal  Academy.  These  have  been  generally  retained  in 
England,  being  owned  by  wealthy  families  or  royal  collect- 
ors. Some  of  the  most  valuable  are  in  the  London  Gal- 
lery— especially  the  "  Banished  Lord,"  the  "  Infant  Samuel," 
"Studies  of  Angels,"  and  the  portraits  of  Lord  Heathfield, 
Dr.  Johnson,  and  Admiral  Keppel.  His  magnificent  portrait 
of  Mrs.  Siddons  as  the  "  Tragic  Muse  "  was  the  subject  of  a 
pleasant  little  anecdote  which  tells  us  that  the  actress,  on 
examining  the  picture,  smiled  to  see  his  name  painted  on  the 
border  of  her  robe.  "  Sir  Joshua  bowed,  and  said,  '  I  could 
not  resist  the  opportunity  of  sending  my  name  down  to  pos- 
terity on  the  hem  of  your  garment."  " 

As  a  colorist,  Sir  Joshua  has  seldom  been  surpassed,  ex- 
cept by  Titian  and  the  later  Venetians.  His  tints  have  not 
been  so  enduring  as  theirs,  for  time  has  faded  the  bloom  of 
his  carnation  cheeks,  confused  his  shadows,  and  dealt  unkind- 
ly with  his  varnishes.  But  the  reputation  so  justly  earned  will 
endure  the  test  of  centuries  ;  and  those  who  stand  beside  his 
tomb,  in  the  crypt  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  where  he  was 
buried  in  1792,  will  be  ready  to  say,  with  Goldsmith  : 

"  Here  Reynolds  is  laid,  and-to  tell  you  my  mind, 
He  has  not  left  a  wiser  nor  better  behind. 


MRS.  SIDDONS  (Joshua  Reynolds}. 


P-39»- 


PAINTING  IN  ENGLAND. 

399 

His  pencil  was  striking,  resistless,  and  grand  ; 
His  manners  were  gentle,  complying,  and  bland. 
Still  born  to  improve  us  in  every  part — 
His  pencil  our  faces,  his  manners  our  heart." 


That  Reynolds  should  have  had  a  rival  is  of  itself  the 
best  indication  of  the  improvement  in  English  art  during  the 
eighteenth  century.  It  is  true  that  Thomas  Gainsborough, 
of  Sudbury,  in  Suffolk  (1727-1789),  is  more  often  thought  of 
as  a  landscape  than  as  a  portrait  painter ;  yet  his  charming 
portraits  of  Mrs.  Siddons,  in  a  huge  though  most  becoming 
bonnet,  now  hanging  in  the  National  Gallery,  and  of  Mrs. 
Graham,  at  Edinburgh,  prove  that  he  could  have  competed 
with  Sir  Joshua  on  his  own  ground.  His  early  efforts  in  Lon- 
don were  not  very  successful,  but  he  eventually  located  him- 
self at  Bath,  where  he  so  rose  into  favor  that  he  was  chosen 
one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Royal  Academy.  In  1774  he 
removed  again  to  London,  where  he  set  himself  in  opposition 
to  Reynolds,  even  painting  his  celebrated  "  Blue  Boy,"  which 
is  merely  the  portrait  of  a  son  of  Mr.  Buttall,  dressed  entirely 
in  blue,  to  contradict  Reynolds's  theory  that  blue  was  not  a 
proper  color  to  use  broadly  in  a  picture.  He  was  an  enthu- 
siastic, ardent,  somewhat  rough,  but  very  honest-hearted  man, 
who  thought  more  of  his  portraits  than  of  his  landscapes  or 
fancy  compositions,  and  did  not  anticipate  that  posterity 
would  reverse  his  judgment.  He  painted  his  own  home- 
scenery  with  a  truth  and  purity  of  color,  a  depth  of  aerial 
perspective,  and  a  grace  and  simplicity  of  style,  which  mark 
him  as  the  first  and  best  of  English  landscapists.  He  also 
excelled  in  genre  subjects,  as  is  evident  in  his  "Cottage 
Door,"  and  "  Shepherd  Boy  in  a  Storm."  London  Gallery 


400 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


and  Kensington  Museum  contain  a  number  of  his  cleverest 
works,  among  which  may  be  noticed  the  portrait  of  Mrs. 
Siddons,  "  Musidora  bathing  her  Feet,"  "Rustic  Children," 
and  the  portraits  of  Ralph  Schomberg  and  a  parish  clerk. 
His  contemporary,  Richard  Wilson,  was  doomed  to  a  strug- 
gling and  obscure  career,  but  our  own  generation  has  formed 
a  more  correct  estimate  of  his  talents,  and  his  fine  Italian 
views  are  now  deservedly  admired. 

Another  younger  and  less  eminent  genre  painter,  George 
Romney,  of  Lancashire  (1734-1802),  somewhat  troubled  the 
serenity  of  Sir  Joshua,  who  used  to  speak  of  him  as  "  the  man 
in  Cavendish  Square."  Romney 's  character  was  selfish  and 
unattractive,  and  his  abilities  overrated ;  yet  he  became  very 
fashionable  in  his  day,  and  some  of  his  female  portraits  were 
even  preferred  to  those  of  Reynolds.  His  most  famous  works 
are  the  portraits  of  Lady  Hamilton,  "  Milton  dictating  to  his 
Daughters,"  and  the  "  Infant  Shakespeare  surrounded  by  the 
Passions."  His  biography,  by  Hayley,  includes  Flaxman's 
very  favorable  criticisms. 

The  same  epoch  which  witnessed  the  triumphs  of  Rey- 
nolds and  Gainsborough  crowned  an  American  with  the  lau- 
rels of  art.  Benjamin  West  had  even  the  honor  of  succeeding 
Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  as  President  of  the  Royal  Academy  of 
England,  while  his  historical  compositions,  which,  to  modern 
eyes,  appear  feeble  and  overstrained,  once  roused  a  wild  en- 
thusiasm, not  only  in  the  American  but  in  the  British  public. 
Born  in  Pennsylvania,  in  1738,  and  educated  among  the  Qua- 
kers, many  amusing  stories  have  been  circulated  in  regard  to 
his  childish  exercise  of  his  gifts.  Some  authorities  have 
gravely  asserted  that  the  Indians  taught  him  how  to  mix  their 


PAINTING  IN  ENGLAND.  4O, 

war-paint,  while  he  plundered  the  domestic  cat  for  hairs  for 
his  brushes !  Others  tell  us  of  the  benevolent  Philadelphia 
merchant's  present  cf  a  paint-box,  and  of  the  Quaker  council 
assembled  to  consider  the  boy's  vocation,  when  ''the  men 
laid  their  hands  on  his  head  in  dedication,  and  the  women 
rose  and  kissed  him."  After  this  traditional  event  he  entered 
the  studio  of  an  artist  in  Philadelphia,  named  Williams,  and 
in  1760  left  America  for  three  years'  travel  and  study  in  Italy. 
On  his  return  he  stopped  in  England,  where  the  profitable 
patronage  of  George  III.  decided  him  to  remain.  He  there 
inaugurated  what  Haydon  calls  "high  art,"  and  was  ex- 
travagantly praised  as  an  "  English  Raphael."  But  these 
ambitious  pictures,  the  largest  of  which  were  executed  in  his 
later  years,  are  more  mannered  and  academic  than  original 
in  conception.  His  most  noteworthy  composition  is  "  The 
Death  of  General  Wolfe,"  owned  by  the  Marquis  of  West- 
minster, but  duplicated  at  Hampton  Court,  in  which  old 
classic  costumes  are  for  the  first  time  abandoned,  and  the 
characters  appear  in  the  dress  of  their  own  century.  Rey- 
nolds declared  that  this  picture  would  occasion  a  revolution 
in  art. 

West's  large  religious  works,  such  as  "  Christ  healing  the 
Sick,"  "  Death  on  the  Pale  Horse,"  and  "  Christ  rejected," 
have  grown  familiar  through  exhibitions  and  engravings. 
They  are  divided  between  England  and  America,  but  the 
most  important  are  in  London  and  at  Windsor.  He  died  in 
1820,  and  was  pompously  buried  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral. 

His  fellow-countryman,  John  Singleton  Copley,  of  Boston 
(1737-1815),  was  a  portrait-painter  in  that  city,  but  at  the 
age  of  thirty-seven  emigrated  to  England,  where  he  essayed 


402 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


historical  painting,  in  which  he  achieved  decided  success. 
His  first  great  London  production,  "  The  Death  (or  rather 
Fainting)  of  Lord  Chatham  in  the  House  of  Lords,"  was  pre- 
sented by  the  Earl  of  Liverpool  to  the  National  Gallery, 
which  it  still  adorns,  together  with  the  "  Death  of  Major  Pier- 
son  "  and  "  Siege  of  Gibraltar,"  which  teem  with  portraits. 
"  Charles  I.  signing  Stafford's  Death-Warrant,"  "  The  Com- 
mons arrested  by  Charles  I.,"  and  "Offer  of  the  Crown  to 
Lady  Jane  Grey,"  are  dignified  and  expressive  pieces.  He 
also  attempted  a  few  religious  themes.  Many  of  his  pictures 
remain  in  America,  and  are  occasionally  exhibited  at  the  Bos- 
ton Athenaeum.  His  life  has  been  written  by  A.  T.  Perkins. 

Henry  Fuseli  (1741-1825),  by  birth  a  Swiss,  was  more 
able  as  a  critic  than  as  an  artist,  yet  his  original  and  fantastic 
compositions  had  their  own  brilliancy,  and  were  the  reflec- 
tion of  his  ardent  and  versatile  temperament.  He  executed 
a  whole  "Milton  Gallery"  of  designs  from  Milton's  works, 
after  contributing  to  the  "  Shakespeare  Gallery  "  which  it  was 
Alderman  Boydell's  ambition  to  create.  His  "  Nightmare  " 
was  a  very  curious  and  entertaining  picture,  painted  the 
morning  after  a  pork-supper.  Such  extraordinary  choice  of 
subjects  caused  him  to  be  termed  "  painter  in  ordinary  to  the 
devil,"  but  did  not  bring  him  much  pecuniary  profit.  Yet  he 
was  a  favorite  with  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  who  procured  him 
a  professorship  in  the  Academy,  where  he  distinguished  him- 
self by  his  lectures. 

James  Barry  (1741-1806)  was,  like  Fuseli,  very  imagina- 
tive in  character  and  style,  and  fairly  earned  the  title  of 
"  the  wild  Irishman,"  not  only  by  his  Cork  pedigree,  but  by 
his  eccentric  career.  His  father  was  a  poor  innkeeper,  but 


PAINTING  IN  ENGLAND.  4O- 

young  Barry  painted,  while  still  a  mere  boy,  an  Irish  scene 
which  so  interested  Edmund  Burke  in  his  education  that  he 
sent  him  abroad  to  study  and  travel.  His  patron's  hopes  of 
him  were  apparently  justified  by  the  "  Adam  and  Eve,"  and 
"Venus  rising  from  the  Sea,"  which  he  exhibited  on  his 
return  from  Italy  to  London,  and  which  procured  his  admis- 
sion into  the  Royal  Academy,  only  to  be  subsequently  ex- 
pelled on  account  of  his  quarrelsome  and  intolerant  dis- 
position. But  Barry  had  overrated  his  own  powers,  and  was 
deficient  both  in  design  and  color.  His  most  remarkable 
pictures,  which  he  termed  his  "  Elysium  " — a  set  of  six  clas- 
sical paintings  illustrating  the  civilization  of  man — were  gra- 
tuitously presented  to  the  Society  of  Arts  at  the  Adelphi. 
Barry  died  in  loneliness,  poverty,  and  neglect ;  yet  his  body 
was  laid  in  state  in  the  rooms  of  the  Adelphi,  and  he  was 
interred  in  St.  Paul's. 

The  less  ideal  though  still  historical  James  Northcote 
(1746-1831),  a  pupil  of  Reynolds,  was  more  fortunate  in  life, 
if  not  so  honored  in  death.  He  first  applied  himself  to  por- 
traits, but  advanced  to  such  compositions  as  "  The  Presenta- 
tion of  British  Officers  to  Pope  Pius  VI.,"  and  similar  large 
subjects.  He  also  became  a  pleasing  author,  and  his  biogra- 
phies of  Titian  and  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  will  long  remain 
as  standard  works. 

The  same  historical  style  was  attempted  by  John  Opie 
(1761-1807),  of  humble  origin,  but  much  natural  cleverness. 
He  began  by  taking  portraits  for  two  dollars  a  head,  but,  by 
being  well  puffed  as  "  the  Cornish  wonder,"  grew  rich  and 
fashionable,  studied  diligently,  became  professor  at  the  Acad- 
emy, wonderfully  improved  his  portraits,  and  extended  his 


404 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


ambition  to  high  art,  where  his  best  effort  is  "  The  Assassina- 
tion of  Rizzio."  To  him  belongs  that  often-quoted  anecdote 
of  the  painter  who,  when  asked  with  what  he  mixed  his  col- 
ors, replied,  "  With  brains,  sir  !  "  His  academical  lectures, 
which  he  left  unfinished,  were  edited  by  his  authoress  wife, 
the  pretty  and  popular  Mrs.  Opie,  once  a  lioness  in  London 
society.  The  portrait  of  William  Siddons,  in  the  National 
Collection,  exemplifies  his  skill. 

A  sketch  of  English  art  would  be  incomplete  without  the 
mention  of  John  Flaxman  (1755-1826),  though  he  was,  cor- 
rectly speaking,  a  sculptor,  and  no  painter.  But  his  designs 
from  Homer,  ^Eschylus,  and  Dante,  are  so  universally  known 
and  admired  that  they  far  outrank  many  elaborate  pictures ; 
while  his  models  and  bass-reliefs  may  vie  with  Canova's.  He 
was  the  first  Professor  of  Sculpture  in  the  Royal  Academy, 
and  D'Anvers  asserts  that  his  lectures  on  sculpture  are  still 
the  best  in  the  English  language. 

His  friend,  the  poet-painter  William  Blake  (1757-1828), 
must  be  judged  by  the  quality  rather  than  the  quantity  of  his 
productions.  His  strange  genius  always  trembled  on  the 
verge  of  insanity,  and  occasionally  lost  its  foothold,  but  he 
showed  wild  flashes  of  an  inspiration  such  as  seldom  visits 
mortal  artists;  and  his  dreams  and  visions,  his  incoherent 
poetry,  and  mystical  music,  were  a  source  of  unbounded  de- 
light during  many  adverse  years.  Gilchrist's  "  Life  of  Blake  " 
is  one  of  the  most  interesting  of  biographies,  and  no  one  can 
rise  from  its  perusal  without  an  intense  desire  to  see  all  the 
works,  of  every  kind,  left  by  this  most  gifted  and  incompre- 
hensible man.  But  the  work  is  always  fragmentary,  and  rareh 
amounts  to  more  than  a  hint  of  the  labors  of  his  brain. 


PAINTING  IN  ENGLAND.  4OS 

"  Songs  of  Innocence  and  Experience,"  which  truly  "  might 
have  been  written  by  an  inspired  child,"  are  his  chief  literary 
memorials.  Some  of  these  he  illustrated  with  his  own  artistic 
designs,  and  also  illustrated  Young's  "  Night  Thoughts,"  and 
other  books.  He  then  sought  to  embody  his  weird  and  mar- 
velous conceptions  in  such  sketches  as  the  pictures  for  the 
"  Book  of  Job,"  the  "  Gates  of  Paradise,"  "  Urizen,"  and  "Je- 
rusalem," many  of  which  are  brilliantly  and  exquisitely  col- 
ored. Even  his  pen-and-ink  or  pencil  jottings  are  amazingly 
expressive  and  characteristic.  Many  readers  will  recall  his 
"Ghost  of.  a  Flea,"  or  the  tiny  design,  "What  is  Man?" 
where  a  butterfly  chrysalis,  with  a  child's  head,  reposes  on  a 
fading  leaf.  He  lived  for  nearly  seventy-two  years,  always 
poor,  always  enthusiastic,  and  always  happy ;  and  lay  upon 
his  death-bed  singing  extemporaneous  songs. 

Blake's  contemporary,  the  more  prosaic  but  much  more 
prolific  Thomas  Stothard  (1755-1834),  was  also  a  book-illus- 
trator, as  may  be  seen  by  "  Bell's  British  Poets,"  "  Ossian," 
"  Pilgrim's  Progress,"  and  the  designs  intended  as  companions 
to  the  Turner  engravings  in  Rogers's  "  Italy."  Almost  two 
thousand  engravings  from  Stothard  may  be  inspected  in  the 
British  Museum.  Yet  his  reputation  did  not  rest  on  these 
fine  drawings  only,  but  on  his  tasteful  and  richly-colored 
paintings,  both  in  oil  and  water-colors.  Some  of  these  are 
gathered  in  the  Kensington  Museum  and  London  Gallery, 
where  we  find  the  original  sketch  of  his  "  Intemperance,"  ex- 
ecuted in  large  size  on  the  staircase  of  the  Marquis  of  Exe- 
ter's country-seat.  The  "  Procession  of  the  Canterbury  Pil- 
grims "  is  another  of  Stothard's  popular  compositions. 

D'Anvers  remarks  that  George  Morland  (1763-1804),  a 


406 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


landscape  and  animal  painter,  did  for  English  peasants  what 
the  Dutch  masters  had  done  for  the  lower  classes  of  Holland. 
Yet  the  rustic  scenes  in  which  he  excels  were  usually  very 
hastily  and  carelessly  finished ;  and,  were  it  not  for  his  light 
touch,  and  simple  fidelity  to  Nature,  would  have  passed  into 
oblivion.  He  was  a  "  prodigal  son  "  among  artists,  ran  an 
extravagant  and  profligate  course,  and  earned  the  epitaph 
which  he  himself  dictated  :  "  Here  lies  a  drunken  dog  !  "  His 
"  Farmyards  "  were  his  most  successful  efforts ;  while  all  au- 
thorities agree  in  witnessing  to  his  peculiar  proficiency  in  the 
painting  of  pigs. 

Before  touching  upon  Turner,  the  prince  of  English  land- 
scapists,  some  words  are  due  to  Raeburn  and  Lawrence,  two 
prominent  portrait-painters  of  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. Henry  Raeburn  (1756-1823),  son  of  a  Scotch  clergy- 
man, was  as  highly  esteemed  in  Edinburgh  as  Sir  Joshua 
Reynolds  had  been  in  London.  He  was  overwhelmed  with 
sitters,  and  has  left  much  of  the  fruit  of  his  labor  in  the  Edin- 
burgh Academy,  which  has  preserved  his  portraits  of  Sir 
Walter  Scott,  Dugald  Stewart,  Francis  Jeffrey,  and  many  other 
eminent  Scotchmen.  His  style  was  manly,  broad,  and  for- 
cible, and  his  merits  were  so  justly  appreciated  that  he  was 
knighted  by  George  IV.,  and  appointed  royal  painter. 

Sir  Thomas  Lawrence,  who  was  born  at  Bristol,  in  1769, 
and  died  in  London,  1830,  won  even  more  fashionable  noto- 
riety. He  commenced  to  work  in  crayon  at  ten  years  of  age, 
and  many  accounts  are  given  of  his  extraordinary  precocity. 
In  maturer  life  he  became  a  favorite,  not  only  at  the  English 
court,  but  with  all  the  sovereigns  of  Europe.  While  at  Rome 
he  was  chosen  President  of  the  Academy  of  St.  Luke,  and 


PAINTING  IN  ENGLAND 

4°  7 

executed  his  celebrated  portraits  of  Pius  VII.  and  Cardinal 
Gonsalvi.  At  home,  he  secured  the  homage  of  all  England, 
and  was  paid  at  the  rate  of  two  or  three  thousand  dollars  for 
his  likenesses.  As  an  artist  he  was  distinguished  by  facile 
grace,  agreeable  color,  and  sweet  but  not  animated  expression. 
His  beautiful  women  are  more  renowned  than  his  men.  Opie 
said  Lawrence  made  coxcombs  of  his  sitters,  and  his  sitters 
made  a  coxcomb  of  Lawrence.  But  he  has  many  noble  mas- 
culine figures  at  Windsor  Castle,  including  the  portrait  of  the 
Emperor  Francis,  and  the  series  of  heroes  known  as  the 
Waterloo  Gallery,  "  headed  by  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  in 
the  dress  which  he  wore,  and  on  the  horse  which  he  rode,  on 
the  field  of  Waterloo."  Lawrence  was  not  only  an  accom- 
plished painter,  but  an  attractive  and  extravagant  man  of 
the  world.  He  never  married,  yet  was  very  handsome  in  per- 
son, bland  in  manner,  and  very  devoted  to  ladies.  Redgrave 
quotes  from  a  fair  authority,  who  states  that  he  was  so  dan- 
gerously gallant  that  his  common  answers  to  dinner  invita- 
tions assumed  the  form  of  billets-doux. 

Joseph  William  Mallord  Turner  (1776-1851)  boasted  no 
such  fascinations.  Artistically  he  was  a  lion,  but  socially  a 
bear.  His  father's  barber-shop  and  the  London  lanes  where 
he  spent  his  childhood  were  not  schools  of  high-breeding ; 
but  his  solitary  print-coloring  and  his  long  and  lonely  rambles 
fostered  more  genius  than  the  atmosphere  of  courts.  Innu- 
merable water-color  sketches  from  Nature,  particularly  studies 
of  skies  and  sunsets,  were  his  youthful  labors  of  love.  His 
first  oil-painting,  a  "  Moonlight  View  of  the  Thames,"  was 
completed  in  1797,  when  he  was  nearly  twenty-two  years  old, 

and  was  followed  by  "  Eneas  with  the  Sibyl,"  the  "  Tenth 
27 


408  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

Plague  of  Egypt,"  "  Jason  in  Search  of  the  Golden  Fleece," 
and  "  Calais  Pier."  Soon  after  the  exhibition  of  the  "  Plague 
of  Egypt  "  he  was  elected  to  the  Academy,  and  in  1807  was 
chosen  professor  of  perspective.  This  was  the  period  when 
he  began  his  imitation  of  Claude,  publishing  a  volume  of 
studies  which  he  called  "  Liber  Studiorum,"  in  allusion  to 
Claude's  sketch-book  "  Liber  Veritatis ;  "  and  turning  in  oil- 
painting  to  the  same  model,  as  we  may  discover  in  the  "  Sun- 
rise through  a  Mist,"  "  Crossing  the  Brook,"  "  Dido  building 
Carthage,"  the  "  Search  of  Apuleia,"  and  other  works  of  his 
middle  epoch. 

Turner  made  extensive  sketching-tours  through  England, 
Wales,  France,  and  Switzerland,  but  did  not  travel  in  Italy 
till  1819.  Yet  this  journey,  together  with  the  two  subsequent 
visits  about  ten  and  twenty  years  later,  materially  influenced 
his  style,  and  resulted  in  such  magnificent  pictures  as  "  Childe 
Harold's  Pilgrimage,"  the  "  Bay  of  Baise,"  "Lake  Avernus," 
various  "  Views  of  Venice,"  the  "  Garden  of  Boccaccio," 
"Caligula's  Palace,"  and  the  "Landing  of  Agrippina."  With 
advancing  life  his  genius  became  yet  more  vivid  and  original, 
flashing  forth  in  such  brilliant  and  remarkable  works  as 
"  Ulysses  deriding  Polyphemus,"  "  Phryne  going  to  the 
Bath,"  the  "  Burial  of  Wilkie,"  and  the  "  Fighting  Temeraire." 
But  his  final  style  was  apt  to  run  into  blurred  and  fiery 
masses  of  fantastic  color,  so  strange  and  inexplicable  that 
modern  critics  have  even  started  the  theory  of  defect  in  his 
eyesight.  His  countrymen  were  by  no  means  insensible  to 
his  merits,  but  he  shunned  all  intercourse  with  the  world  ; 
and,  though  he  acquired  sufficient  fortune  to  build  himself  a 
house  and  gallery  in  Queen  Anne  Street,  and  to  purchase  a 


PAINTING  IN  ENGLAND.  4o9 

villa  at  Twickenham,  yet  he  would  steal  away,  time  after 
time,  to  obscure  lodgings,  where,  estranged  from  all  society 
except  his  favorite  cats,  he  would  devote  himself  to  solitary 
industry.  In  such  a  retired  cottage,  near  Cremorne,  Chelsea, 
he  died,  under  a  feigned  name,  at  the  age  of  seventy-six ;  and 
was  buried,  as  he  requested,  by  the  side  of  Sir  Joshua  Rey- 
nolds. His  large  collection  of  his  own  pictures  he  be- 
queathed to  the  nation,  and  they  now  constitute  one  of  the 
greatest  treasures  of  the  London  Gallery. 

The  descriptions  of  Turner's  appearance  are  far  from 
flattering.  He  was  stout,  and  rather  under  the  medium 
height,  with  restless  eyes,  and  a  ruddy  complexion.  His 
dress  was  the  reverse  of  neat,  and  his  hands,  according  to 
Thornbury,  were  "  the  smallest  and  dirtiest  on  record."  But 
those  hands  produced  the  most  wonderful  results,  with  a 
brush  that  seemed  dipped  in  the  very  colors  of  Nature  itself. 
Since  the  days  of  Claude  no  landscapist  has  reached  to  Tur- 
ner's level.  He  indeed  considered  himself  Claude's  superior, 
and  expressly  directed  that  his  "  Dido  building  Carthage  " 
and  "  Sun  in  a  Mist  "  should  be  hung  between  two  superb 
Claudes  in  order  that  his  own  preeminence  should  be  mani- 
fest. The  result  in  the  mind  of  the  spectator  is  not  always 
just  what  Turner  would  have  wished;  but  no  other  artist 
could  ever  have  dreamed  of  challenging  such  a  comparison. 
The  student  should  apply  himself  to  the  volumes  of  "  Mod- 
ern Painters,"  if  he  wishes  to  gain  a  profound  appreciation  of 
Turner's  characteristics.  They  have  given  rise  to  the  prov- 
erb "  There  is  but  one  artist,  and  Ruskin  is  his  prophet ;  " 
but  their  gorgeous  word-painting  will  feast  the  taste,  even  if 
it  should  not  in  every  case  convince  the  judgment;  and, 


4io 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


whatever  its  exaggeration,  posterity  cannot  fail  to  recognize 
its  deep  foundation  of  truth. 

The  management  of  light  and  shade  in  Turner's  mere  de- 
signs for  illustrations,  such  as  those  of  Rogers's  "  Italy,"  is, 
in  its  way,  almost  as  marvelous  as  the  tints  of  his  pictures, 
while  his  power  in  water-colors  is  beyond  all  praise.  He  was 
very  careless  in  regard  to  the  use  and  durability  of  his  mate- 
rials, so  that  time  must  deplorably  injure  his  compositions. 
His  painting  of  the  "  Slave-Ship,"  eloquently  described  by 
Ruskin,  was  purchased  by  Mr.  J.  T.  Johnston,  and  is  now 
exhibited  in  New  York.  Those  who  cannot  see  his  other 
originals  will  find  an  endless  fund  of  pleasure  in  the  excel- 
lent engravings  of  his  numerous  works. 

The  landscapes  of  John  Constable  (1776-1837)  are  in 
quite  a  different  manner.  His  predilection  was  for  scenes  of 
cultivated  Nature,  and  effects  of  dew  and  clouds.  As  all  his 
sympathies  were  decidedly  English,  so  his  affection  included 
the  English  atmosphere,  which  he  introduced  so  generally 
into  art  that  Fuseli  used  jokingly  to  say :  "  Bring  me  my  um- 
brella; I  am  going  to  see  Constable's  pictures."  When  he 
represented  fine  weather  he  attempted  no  such  sunsets  or 
sunrises  as  are  dear  to  the  painter's  heart,  but  put  his  sun 
directly  overhead,  shedding  broad,  unshadowed  light  over  the 
view.  His  prevailing  tones  were  green  and  gray,  with  occa- 
sional splashiness  of  execution  intended  to  be  suggestive  of 
dew.  The  simplicity  of  his  style  reminds  us  of  Gainsbor- 
ough, though  his  range  of  motives  was  more  limited,  and  his 
coloring  less  brown.  His  artistic  success  was  solid,  but  slow. 
Though  his  father,  a  wealthy  miller  of  Suffolk,  gave  him  all 
necessary  advantages  of  education,  yet  his  work  was  not  cor- 


PAINTING  IN  ENGLAND.  .,, 

411 

dially  received  till  he  had  reached  middle  life ;  nor  was  he 
admitted  to  the  Academy  till  the  age  of  forty-three.  But, 
once  attained,  the  permanence  of  his  position  has  never  been 
questioned. 

Sir  Augustus  Calcott,  of  Kensington  (1779-1844),  once  a 
choir-boy,  but  eventually  knighted  by  the  queen,  produced  a 
number  of  small  though  pleasing  landscapes,  of  which  the 
National  Collection  contains  good  specimens.  He  contributed 
regularly  to  the  Academy  exhibitions,  always  selecting  sub- 
jects of  natural  scenery,  till  1837,  when  he  brought  out  a 
larger  picture  entitled  "  Raphael  and  the  Fornarina,"  fol- 
lowed some  three  years  after  by  "  Milton  and  his  Daugh- 
ters." 

William  Collins,  of  London  (1788-1847),  is  also  among 
the  host  of  English  landscape-artists.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Morland,  and  based  his  style  upon  his  instructions,  often 
treating  rustic  genre  scenes  and  coast-views.  Some  fine  Ital- 
ian landscapes,  executed  during  his  tours  abroad,  have  been 
much  praised.  But  he  loved  far  better  the  rural  life  of  home. 
"  Happy  as  a  King  "  and  "  The  Prawn-Catchers,"  in  the  Lon- 
don Gallery,  are  among  his  characteristic  pictures ;  while 
such  other  favorites  as  "  The  Sale  of  the  Pet  Lamb,"  "  Sun- 
day Morning,"  "  Hop-Gatherers,"  "  Fetching  the  Doctor," 
and  "  Fishermen  on  the  Lookout,"  have  been  purchased  by 
private  collectors.  The  French  Exhibition  of  1824  awarded 
a  gold  medal  to  his  "Hay- Wain."  His  later  religious  paint- 
ings, "  Our  Saviour  with  the  Doctors  in  the  Temple,"  and  the 
"  Two  Disciples  at  Emmaus,"  failed  to  secure  the  same  popu- 
larity. 

But  the  day  of  "  High  Art  "  was  at  hand.     Benjamin 


412 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


Robert  Haydon  (1786-1846),  the  son  of  a  Plymouth  book- 
seller, felt  it  to  be  his  mission  to  raise  the  standard  of  na- 
tional taste.  If  confidence  in  a  mission  could  insure  success, 
his  fate  would  have  been  exalted;  but  his  autobiography, 
only  lately  published,  reads  like  a  stage-tragedy.  An  enthu- 
siastic and  self-conceited,  though  really  talented  youth,  he 
imagined  himself  endowed  with  the  combined  genius  of  Ra- 
phael, Titian,  and  Michael  Angelo;  dreamed  of  glorifying 
history  and  religion  by  the  triumphs  of  his  brush,  and  of 
dictating  the  course  of  British  art  from  his  pinnacle  of  fame. 
He  had  no  sooner  entered  the  Academy  as  a  student  than  he 
began  to  plan  out  his  first  great  picture,  no  modest  portrait 
or  little  landscape,  but  a  "  Flight  into  Egypt  "  which  should 
rival  the  old  masters.  His  need  of  money,  however,  forced 
him  to  a  temporary  practice  of  portrait-painting,  which  he 
found  remunerative,  but  which  he  gladly  abandoned  when 
given  a  commission  by  Lord  Mulready  to  represent  the 
"Murder  of  Dentatus,"  the  Roman  tribune.  For  this  he 
received  two  hundred  guineas,  and  was  so  dissatisfied  with 
the  place  assigned  to  it  in  the  Academy  that  he  quarreled 
with  the  directors  of  the  institution.  The  "  Dentatus  "  could 
not  be  considered  a  very  brilliant  achievement ;  but,  with  un- 
quenchable ardor,  he  commenced  in  1814  his  "Judgment  of 
Solomon,"  which  sold  for  six  hundred  guineas.  Part  of  the 
money  so  procured  was  expended  in  an  art-journey  to  the 
Louvre  with  Wilkie.  When  his  purse  was  exhausted  he  pre- 
pared his  canvas  for  another  colossal  work,  the  "  Entry  of 
Christ  into  Jerusalem,"  which  was  exhibited  both  in  England 
and  America,  and  brought  him  fifteen  thousand  dollars.  Im- 
provident and  impulsive  as  ever,  his  funds  were  soon  spent ; 


PAINTING  IN  ENGLAND.  .,, 

413 

and  thenceforth  his  career  became  only  a  variation  of  pov- 
erty, ambition,  reckless  fits  of  industry,  temporary  prodi- 
gality, and  arrests  for  debt.  In  the  midst  of  all,  he  kept  on 
painting  picture  after  picture,  sometimes  of  immense  size, 
such  as  "  The  Raising  of  Lazarus,"  where  twenty-five  figures 
are  grouped  upon  a  canvas  nearly  twenty  feet  long ;  dramatic 
"  Napoleons,"  or  "  Scenes  from  Roman  History."  He  also 
published  two  volumes  of  lectures ;  but  his  hopes  were  dis- 
appointed, his  exhibitions  often  failed,  and  he  sank  deeper 
and  deeper  into  difficulties.  The  public  officers,  to  whom 
he  appealed  for  patronage,  took  no  notice  of  his  claims; 
the  commissions  which  he  solicited  were  refused;  his'abili- 
ties  were  utterly  unrecognized;  and,  harassed  into  despair 
and  brain-disease,  he  committed  suicide  in  his  London  stu- 
dio, where  his  large  painting  of  "Alfred  the  Great  and  the 
First  English  Jury  "  was  still  upon  the  easel. 

His  friend  David  Wilkie,  the  cautious  Scotchman  (1785- 
1841),  was  more  moderate  in  his  expectations  and  more  for- 
tunate in  his  experience.  Brought  up  in  a  manse  of  Fife- 
shire,  it  was  thought  very  wild  and  reckless  for  the  minister's 
son  to  yearn  after  the  vagabond  profession  of  painting.  But 
he  was  at  last  permitted  to  enter  the  Trustees'  Academy  at 
Edinburgh,  where  he  justified  his  calling  by  winning  the 
prize  for  the  best  picture.  Returning  to  Fifeshire,  he  pro- 
duced, to  the  surprise  of  his  family  and  townspeople,  his. 
graphic  and  original  painting  of  the  "  Pitlessie  Fair,"  whose, 
multitudinous  figures  were  genuine  portraits  taken  from  the 
farmers,  school-masters,  and  peasantry,  of  the  neighborhood.. 
No  further  objection  was  made  to  his  trying  his  fortune  in 
London,  where,  after  a  year's  hard  study,  he  suddenly  rose: 


414 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS 'OF  PAINTING, 


into  notice  by  the  exhibition  of  the  "Village  Politicians." 
From  that  time  his  vocation  as  a  delineator  of  simple,  fa- 
miliar, and  often  humorous  subjects,  dramatically  and  pow- 
erfully treated,  was  successfully  fixed.  No  English  genre 
painter,  except  Hogarth,  has  ever  equaled  his  "  Blind  Fid- 
dler," "  Rent-Day,"  "  Village  Festival,"  "  Blindman's  Buff," 
"  Distraining  for  Rent,"  "  Letter  of  Recommendation," 
"  Reading  of  the  Will,"  "  Parish  Beadle,"  "  Chelsea  Pension- 
ers," and  other  admirable  works.  They  are  genial  and  kindly 
in  tone,  without  Hogarth's  bitter  satire ;  picturesque  in  ar- 
rangement ;  vivid  in  action  ;  careful  in  finish ;  and  fine,  if 
not  rich,  in  color.  The  "  Reading  of  the  Will  "  was  ordered 
by  the  King  of  Bavaria,  and  still  hangs  in  the  Munich  Gal- 
lery. If  its  gifted  author  had  but  been  blessed  with  health 
proportionate  to  his  talents,  the  highest  triumphs  would  have 
been  possible  to  his  skill ;  but  he  was  of  delicate  constitu- 
tion, gaunt  and  lean  as  became  a  Scotchman,  and  his  labors 
were  interrupted  by  frequent  fits  of  sickness.  Even  repeated 
foreign  journeys  did  not  restore  him  to  strength,  though  they 
greatly  altered  his  style  and  method.  An  art-tour  in  Spain 
appeared  specially  to  impress  him.  He  desired  to  imitate 
the  coloring  of  Velasquez,  Titian,  and  Correggio,  and  to  con- 
centrate his  efforts  on  a  more  elevated  class  of  subjects.  But 
the  "  Preaching  of  John  Knox,"  "  Wellington  the  Night  be- 
fore Waterloo,"  and  "  Benvenuto  Cellini  and  the  Pope,"  all 
examples  of  his  change  of  manner,  are  more  pretentious  and 
less  forcible  than  his  sympathetic  genre  pieces. 

Wilkie  received  in  1830  the  appointment  of  court-painter 
in  ordinary,  and  was  knighted  by  King  William  IV.;  but 
such  honors  in  no  degree  diverted  his  mind  from  his  profes- 


PAINTING  IN  ENGLAND.  „.- 

415 

sion.  He  was  seized  with  the  desire  to  study  the  scenery  of 
the  Holy  Land,  and  determined  to  embark  for  Palestine. 
The  voyage  was  begun ;  but  an  attack  of  illness  proved  fatal, 
and  he  died  on  shipboard,  near  Malta,  on  the  ist  of  June, 
1841.  His  burial  at  sea  is  the  theme  of  one  of  Turner's 
striking  pictures. 

A  few  other  painters  must  yet  be  mentioned,  born  near 
the  expiration  of  the  century.  Patrick  Nasmyth  (1786-1831), 
spoken  of  as  the  English  Hobbema,  has  been  commended  by 
connoisseurs  for  his  Scotch  views  and  realistic  rustic  scenes, 
which  are  rather  too  small  and  dark  to  suit  more  popular 
taste.  An  accident  of  his  boyhood  compelled  him  to  paint 
with  his  left  hand,  which  renders  his  pictures  marvels  of 
technical  execution;  but  he  is  insignificant  compared  with 
William  Mulready  (1786-1863),  who  followed  Wilkie  in  genre, 
and  showed  himself  a  master  in  that  department.  He  was  a 
native  of  County  Clare,  Ireland,  but  was  of  a  more  reserved 
and  less  buoyant  disposition  than  is  generally  an  Irishman's 
heritage.  Coming  to  London  to  study,  he  fell  in  love  with 
the  sister  of  his  teacher,  but  regretted  through  life  the  hasty 
and  unhappy  marriage  which  ensued.  His  first  important 
painting  was  accomplished  in  1809,  and  called  "  Returning 
from  the  Ale-House  ;  "  but  the  "  Punch,"  and  "  Idle  Boys," 
which  he  exhibited  three  or  four  years  after,  found  universal 
favor,  and  before  the  age  of  thirty  he  was  honorably  asso- 
ciated with  the  Royal  Academicians.  His  compositions, 
which  are  usually  of  cabinet  size,  are  distinguished  for  their 
excellent  drawing ;  their  fidelity  of  detail,  in  which  he  com- 
peted with  the  Dutch  school ;  and  their  richness  and  depth 
of  color,  which,  however,  as  he  advanced  toward  old  age, 


4t6  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS   OF  PAINTING. 

grew  powerfully  and  unpleasantly  purple  in  tone.  His  sub- 
jects are  taken  from  childhood  and  every-day  life,  and  are 
agreeably  but  by  no  means  imaginatively  rendered.  He 
never  went  abroad,  but  prided  himself  on  his  exclusively 
English  culture.  Many  of  his  works  are  in  the  South 
Kensington  Museum  and  London  Gallery,  especially  "  The 
Last  in,"  "  Giving  a  Bite,"  "  The  Fight  interrupted,"  "  First 
Love,"  "Fair  Time,"  "Crossing  the  Ford,"  "Seven  Ages  of 
Man,"  " Toy-Seller,"  and  "Choosing  the  Wedding  Gown." 
The  latter  is  one  of  his  best  pieces,  taken  from  his  "  Vicar  of 
Wakefield  Series,"  which  were  first  executed  as  woodcuts  in 
1840,  and  subsequently  developed  into  paintings.  He  was 
tolerably  skillful  in  landscapes,  but  still  happier  in  his  chalk 
life-studies,  some  of  which  are  also  preserved  at  Kensington. 
William  Etty,  "the  great  English  colorist"  (1787-1849), 
born  at  York,  and  early  apprenticed  to  a  printer,  is  an  in- 
stance of  the  patience  of  genius  and  the  reward  of  persever- 
ance. His  uncle,  who  was  a  man  of  some  means,  took  pity 
on  his  artistic  aspirations,  released  him  from  printer's  drudg- 
ery, brought  him  up  to  London,  and  even  placed  him  under 
the  instruction  of  Sir  Thomas  Lawrence.  But  Etty  was  slow 
and  plodding,  and  did  not  seem  destined  to  be  a  favorite 
of  Fortune.  His  efforts  for  prize  medals  utterly  failed; 
his  pictures  were  refused  admission  to  the  Academy,  or, 
when  exhibited,  were  quite  neglected ;  he  made  no  money ; 
and  was  repeatedly  disappointed  in  love.  Yet  he  did  not 
succumb  beneath  these  misfortunes,  but  painted  bravely  on, 
till  his  "Coral-Builders"  and  "Cleopatra,"  in  1820  and  1821, 
established  his  reputation,  and  he  "woke  to  find  himself 
famous."  The  next  year  he  visited  Italy,  and  studied  en- 


PAINTING  IN  ENGLAND.  4iy 

thusiastically  at  Venice,  where  his  passionate  fondness  for 
color  was  intensified.  He  was  one  of  the  few  English  artists 
who  have  ever  successfully  treated,  or  even  attempted,  nude 
figures;  and  his  flesh-tints  were  brilliant,  powerful,  and  some- 
times exaggerated.  But  this  sensuous  tendency  was  com- 
bined with  true  purity  of  mind  and  most  elevated  intentions. 
He  executed  nine  large  pictures,  in  all  of  which  he  aimed  to 
"  paint  some  great  moral  on  the  heart  " — a  triptych  from  the 
history  of  "  Joan  of  Arc,"  meant  to  illustrate  religion,  loyalty, 
and  patriotism;  "Ulysses  and  the  Sirens,"  showing  the 
danger  of  sensual  delights ;  "  The  Combat,"  or  the  beauty  of 
mercy;  "  Benaiah,"  or  the  virtue  of  valor,  and  three  "  Scenes 
from  the  Life  of  Judith,"  particularly  the  "  Judith  and  Holo- 
fernes,"  of  which  Redgrave  has  written  a  glowing  description. 
Most  of  these  are  owned  by  the  Royal  Scottish  Academy. 
The  London  collection  also  possesses  some  of  his  valuable 
works,  the  most  characteristic  of  which  are  his  "  Female 
Bathers  "  and  "  Youth  on  the  Prow  and  Pleasure  at  the 
Helm."  He  is  buried  in  his  native  York. 

Sir  Charles  Eastlake  (1793-1865),  a  fellow-townsman  and 
pupil  of  Haydon,  was  by  profession  a  painter,  but  proved 
himself  a  master  in  literature.  His  youthful  pictures  of 
"Christ  raising  the  Daughter  of  Jairus"  and  "Brutus  exhort- 
ing the  Romans  to  revenge  the  Death  of  Lucretia  "  were  ap- 
proved by  critics ;  but  his  travels  through  Italy  and  Greece 
furnished  him  with  more  unusual  and  popular  subjects.  He 
had  also  a  peculiar  talent  for  lovely  and  expressive  female 
heads,  as  may  be  observed  in  his  bust  of  "Haide"e,"  in  the 
Vernon  collection.  The  same  collection  contains  his  "  Christ 
blessing  Little  Children."  In  1850  he  was  knighted,  and 


4I8  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

became  President  of  the  Academy.  We  are  indebted  to  him 
for  the  translation  of  Kugler's  "  Schools  of  Italian  Painting," 
ahd  Goethe's  "  Theory  of  Colors ;  "  while  his  own  "  Materials 
for  a  History  of  Oil-Painting  "  finds  its  place  in  every  large 
art-library. 

Another  American  is  now  added  to  the  list  of  painters — 
Charles  Robert  Leslie,  born  in  Clerkenwell,  October  19,  1794, 
of  American  parents.  The  family  left  England  about  five 
years  afterward,  and  the  boy  was  apprenticed  to  a  Phila- 
delphia bookseller;  but  was  finally  sent,  when  seventeen 
years  old,  to  London,  where  he  was  kindly  received  by  West 
and  Washington  Allston.  He  also  became  the  friend  of 
Washington  Irving,  whose  "  Sketch-Book "  he  illustrated. 
Leslie  first  tried  his  talents  at  portrait-painting ;  then  took  a 
short  flight  into  high  art ;  but  soon  discovered  that  his  chief 
abilities  lay  in  the  line  of  the  higher  genre,  where  his  refine- 
ment of  execution,  love  for  rich  costumes,  beautiful  female 
faces,  and  graceful  action,  found  full  play.  The  "  Sir  Roger 
de  Coverley  going  to  Church,"  finished  in  1819,  and  designed 
for  an  American  merchant,  was  enthusiastically  approved  by 
the  public.  His  subsequent  cheerful  pictures,  such  as  "  May- 
Day  in  the  Reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,"  "  Merry  Wives  of 
Windsor,"  "Dinner  at  Page's  House,"  "Sancho  Panza,"  and 
"  Uncle  Toby  and  the  Widow,"  many  of  which  are  owned  and 
exhibited  by  the  nation,  will  always  be  certain  of  admirers. 
Their  only  deficiency  is  chalkiness  of  color.  Leslie  married 
a  beautiful  English  lady,  Miss  Stone,  one  of  six  sisters  who 
were  all  so  pretty  that  they  were  spoken  of  in  society  as  "  the 
six  precious  stones."  In  1833  he  spent  a  few  months  in 
America  as  Professor  of  Drawing  in  the  Military  Academy  of 


PAINTING  IN  ENGLAND.  4Ig 

West  Point,  but  soon  returned  to  England,  where  he  had 
many  commissions  from  the  nobility  and  royal  family.  In 
1838  he  painted  "  The  Coronation  of  the  Queen."  In  1848 
he  accepted  the  appointment  of  Professor  of  Painting  in  the 
Royal  Academy,  and  died  in  London  in  1859.  His  "Auto- 
biographical Recollections  "  are  full  of  interest, 

Clarkson  Stanfield  (1793-1867)  and  David  Roberts  (1796- 
1864)  both  opened  their  careers  as  theatrical  scene-painters. 
Though  such  an  occupation  is  not  conducive  to  fineness  of 
finish,  it  certainly  develops  breadth  of  treatment ;  and  Stan- 
field  found  its  advantages  in  his  subsequent  landscape  and 
marine  pictures.  In  these  marine  pictures  he  is  peculiarly 
distinguished.  A  series  of  forty  views  in  the  British  Channel 
and  on  the  French  coast  have  been  well  engraved  under  the 
title  of  "  Stanfield's  Coast  Scenery."  His  "  Battle  of  Tra- 
falgar," "Mount  St.  Michael,"  "Castle  of  Ischia,"  "Isola 
Bella,"  "  Scenes  in  Venice,"  and  "  Beilstein  on  the  Moselle," 
are  very  celebrated.  He  is  considered  the  leader  of  English 
realists,  and  has  been  compared  to  Vandevelde ;  but  his  Na- 
ture, though  eminently  faithful,  is  unpoetical ;  and  his  calm 
seas,  which  Ruskin  calls  "  true,  salt,  and  serviceable,"  are 
usually  cold  in  color. 

Roberts  particularly  devoted  himself  to  architecture,  and 
Spanish  and  Eastern  views ;  having  gained  materials  for 
painting  in  his  tours  through  France,  Germany,  Belgium, 
Holland,  Spain,  Morocco,  Egypt,  and  Syria.  The  sketches 
there  made  were  either  lithographed  or  completed  in  oil  or 
water-colors,  and  thus  acquired  deserved  reputation.  His 
interiors  of  Burgos  Cathedral,  and  St.  Paul's,  Antwerp,  hang 
in  the  National  Gallery ;  but  his  lithographs  and  sketches 


42O 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


better  exemplify  his  style.  His  series  of  "  Views  of  London 
from  the  River  Thames  "  was  abruptly  closed  by  his  death, 
from  apoplexy. 

The  water-colors  of  Roberts,  Stanfield,  Calcott,  Turner, 
and  Blake,  naturally  suggest  the  school  of  water-color  paint- 
ing which  English  art  is  now  fostering,  and  in  which  it  stands 
unrivaled.  It  is  yet  too  young  to  possess  a  history,  but  it 
promises  a  brilliant  record  for  the  future.  With  the  foregoing 
celebrated  names  must  be  included  those  of  David  Cox, 
whose  idyllic  landscapes  charm  us  with  their  shifting  light 
and  shade,  their  transparent  color,  and  breezy  foliage ;  of 
William  Henry  Hunt,  with  his  exquisite  fruit,  birds,  and  flow- 
ers ;  and  of  Samuel  Prout,  who,  like  Roberts,  was  a  lover  of 
architecture,  and  whose  views  are  equally  famous. 

The  English  artists  who  follow,  born  after  the  year  1 800, 
take  their  places  in  the  succeeding  pages. 


CHAPTER   XVIII. 

PAINTING   IN    THE   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

THE  subject  of  painting  in  the  nineteenth  century  prop- 
erly demands  a  volume,  and  defies  compression  into  the 
limits  of  a  single  chapter.  But  the  slight  sketch  here  at- 
tempted may  be  supplemented  by  reference  to  the  works  of 
Charles  Blanc,  Liibke,  Hamerton,  Redgrave,  Wornum,  Ottley, 
Mrs.  Tytler,  and  other  contemporary  writers,  to  whom  I  am 
indebted.  The  preceding  account  of  the  English  school  has 
already  encroached  on  the  limits  of  modern  painting ;  but, 
before  continuing  the  art-history  of  England,  it  will  be  advisa- 
ble to  consider  the  representatives  of  the  modern  schools  of 
Germany  and  France. 

Few  are  thoroughly  aware  how  intense  in  effort  and  how 
powerful  in  result  was  the  art-revival  in  Germany  at  the  be- 
ginning of  this  century.  The  works  of  Cornelius,  Overbeck, 
and  Kaulbach  are  not  mere  easel-pictures,  to  be  criticised 
hair  by  hair,  or  leaf  by  leaf,  and  valued  at  so  much  an  inch  ; 
but  vast  frescoes,  rivaling  in  extent  and  design  mediaeval 
wall-paintings — broad,  thoughtful,  and  vigorous — aiming  to 
unite  ancient  idealism  with  modern  execution.  The  German 
nation  lives,  breathes,  and  works  by  theory ;  and  it  is  there- 


422 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


fore  not  surprising  to  learn  that  four  young  students,  who 
had  left  the  fatherland  to  seek  inspiration  in  Rome,  met 
together,  about  1810,  to  consult  upon  the  principles  of  art, 
and  the  laws  by  which  it  should  be  governed  ;  and  determined 
to  devote  their  lives  to  the  development  of  a  theory  of  paint- 
ing which  they  constructed,  whose  purpose  was  to  reanimate 
their  souls  with  the  old  faith  and  devotion ;  renouncing  sen- 
sual beauty  on  the  one  hand,  and  empty  formalism  on  the 
other ;  laboring  with  pure  hearts,  ascetic  and  consecrated 
spirits,  truth  and  fidelity  of  method,  and  lofty  though  chast- 
ened ideality.  This  German  conception  corresponded  in 
some  points  with  what  was  afterward  known  as  the  Pre-Ra- 
phaelite movement  in  England. 

The  four  men  thus  associated,  Peter  von  Cornelius,  of 
Diisseldorf  (1784-1867),  Friedrich  Overbeck,  of  Liibeck 
(1789-1869),  Philip  Veit,  of  Frankfort,  and  Wilhelm  Schadow, 
of  Berlin,  remained  for  some  years  at  Rome,  attracting  other 
followers.  They  first  thought  to  bring  their  lives  into  har- 
mony with  their  profession,  and  worked  conscientiously  and 
enthusiastically  in  accordance  with  their  theory,  executing 
frescoes  in  the  house  of  the  Prussian  consul,  on  Monte  Pincio, 
and  in  the  Villa  Massimi.  But,  in  1820,  Cornelius  was  called 
back  to  Diisseldorf,  as  director  of  its  Academy,  and  in  1825 
was  summoned  by  King  Ludwig  of  Bavaria  to  decorate  the 
national  buildings  erected  at  Munich.  Here  was  his  golden 
opportunity,  which  he  well  improved.  The  genius  of  Corne- 
lius, though  profound  in  feeling,  was  broader  than  that  of 
Overbeck ;  and  therefore,  while  his  theories  were  firmly 
grounded,  he  extended  his  sympathies  to  antique  and  histor- 
ical as  well  as  to  sacred  motives,  only  stipulating  that  all 


PAINTING  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.     42, 

should  be  treated  in  the  same  lofty  and  severe  manner.  We 
behold  the  result  in  the  Glyptothek,  or  Munich  Museum  of 
Statuary,  where  two  spacious  halls  take  their  names  of  "  Hall 
of  the  Gods  "  and  "  Hall  of  the  Heroes  "  from  his  mighty  mu- 
ral paintings ;  in  his  "  History  of  Painting,"  in  the  Pinakothek ; 
and  in  his  colossal  frescoes  in  the  Ludwig-Kirche,  whose 
subjects  range  from  man's  creation  to  the  Last  Judgment. 
Magnificent  later  frescoes  were  designed  for  the  Royal  Mau- 
soleum and  Campo  Santo  at  Berlin,  where  we  find  the  "  Four 
Riders  of  the  Apocalypse,"  which  are  regarded  as  his  master- 
pieces. All  these  vast  compositions  display  inexhaustible  sub- 
limity, and  impress  us  by  their  grandeur  of  invention.  Yet 
we  are  puzzled  to  understand  why  they  and  other  splendid 
monumental  works  by  Schnorr,  Hess,  and  kindred  leaders  of 
the  Munich  school,  should  so  generally  fail  to  excite  our  in- 
terest, even  when  they  secure  our  admiration.  This  may 
partly  be  explained  by  their  cold  and  deficient  coloring,  and 
partly  by  their  appeal  to  the  merely  intellectual  and  not  the 
emotional  side  of  our  nature. 

The  influence  of  Overbeck,  though  not  so  widely  ex- 
tended as  that  of  Cornelius,  was  singular  and  deep.  He  be- 
came president  of  the  Academy  of  St.  Luke,  joined  the 
Romish  Church,  made  his  home  in  the  haunts  of  mediaeval 
masters,  and  strove  by  reproducing  their  forms  to  awaken 
their  spirit.  His  own  tastes  were  intensely  religious,  and  he 
longed  to  transform  himself  into  a  modern  Fra  Angelico ;  but 
the  style  of  holiness  which  was  natural,  simple,  and  hearty, 
in  the  monk  of  San  Marco,  grows  strained  and  chill  in  our 
present  atmosphere.  Yet  Overbeck's  reverence  was  very 

real,  and  none  can  examine  the  scenes  from  the  life  of  Christ 
28 


424 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


in  his  "  Holy  Gospels  "  without  being  struck  by  his  spiritual 
purity.  The  large  picture  of  "  Christ  entering  Jerusalem,"  in 
the  Marienkirche,  Ltibeck ;  "  Triumph  of  Religion,"  in  Frank- 
fort ;  "  Miracle  of  Roses,'1  in  St.  Francis's  Church,  Assisi ; 
and  "  Christ  on  the  Mount  of  Olives,"  at  Hamburg,  are  among 
his  principal  works ;  while  he  has  also  left  us  several  "  Holy 
Families,"  very  suggestive  of  Perugino  and  Raphael. 

William  Schadow,  the  friend  of  Overbeck,  succeeded 
Cornelius  as  director  of  the  Diisseldorf  Academy,  and  con- 
tributed to  form  the  style  of  some  of  the  best  modern  paint- 
ers of  Germany.  This  Diisseldorf  school,  which  has  had 
many  vicissitudes,  appeared  in  its  youth  exceedingly  promis- 
ing, and  has  instructed  such  powerful  painters  as  Lessing, 
whose  "  Martyrdom  of  Huss "  is  now  at  Berlin,  while  its 
companion-piece,  "  Huss  before  the  Council,"  is  in  the  Stadel 
Institute,  Frankfort ;  Bendemann,  designer  of  the  frescoes  in 
the  Dresden  Palace,  whose  "  Jeremiah  among  the  Ruins  of 
Jerusalem  "  and  "  Sorrowing  Jews  "  are  so  nobly  pathetic  and 
richly  colored ;  Rotermund,  whose  u  Dead  Christ "  is  the  finest 
modern  picture  in  the  Dresden  Gallery;  and  Achenbach, 
whose  landscapes  find  numerous  purchasers,  and  command 
high  prices. 

Wilhelm  von  Kaulbach  (1805-1874),  a  pupil  of  Cornelius, 
is,  however,  the  star  of  contemporary  German  art.  He  has 
been  described  as  "  a  very  thin  man,  with  a  little  long  glossy 
black  hair,  smoothed  over  his  forehead,  and  deep,  tender, 
shining,  humorous  eyes ;  his  manner  a  mixture  of  simplicity, 
friendliness,  fun,  and  enthusiasm."  His  father  was  an  en- 
graver of  Westphalia,  but  gave  his  son  a  Diisseldorf  educa- 
tion. Kaulbach  followed  Cornelius  to  Munich,  whe.re  King 


PAINTING  IN   THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.    435 

Ludwig  encouraged  him  by  princely  commissions — bidding 
him  adorn  his  new  building  of  the  Odeon  with  frescoes  of 
"Apollo  and  the  Muses,"  his  garden  arcades  with  designs  in 
allegory,  and  his  throne-hall  and  other  palace-rooms  with 
scenes  from  Klopstock  and  Goethe.  King  and  people  united 
to  praise  these  works,  which  were  not  only  executed  with  the 
thoughtfulness  and  grandeur  of  Cornelius,  but  with  the  touch 
of  a  sympathetic  nature,  and  the  charm  of  powerful  and  life- 
like coloring.  The  appointment  of  court  painter  was  offered 
and  accepted,  and  we  must  therefore  make  a  pilgrimage  to 
Munich  to  study  Kaulbach  thoroughly ;  though  Berlin  pos- 
sesses his  splendid  colossal  frescoes  on  the  staircase  of  its 
Museum,  beginning  with  the  "  Dispersion  of  the  Nations  at 
Babel,"  and  proceeding  through  "  Homer  and  the  Greeks," 
the  "  Destruction  of  Jerusalem,"  the  "  Battle  of  the  Huns," 
and  "The  Crusaders,"  down  to  the  "Age  of  the  Refor- 
mation." No  words  can  do  justice  to  these  designs,  which 
are  worthy  even  of  Michael  Angelo.  The  "Battle  of  the 
Huns "  is  usually  preferred  by  critics,  and  is  often  called 
the  spectre -battle,  because  of  its  embodying  the  old  legend 
of  the  fierce  barbarian  combat  continued  in  the  air  by  the 
ghosts  of  the  dead.  But  the  "  Destruction  of  Jerusalem  "  is 
equally  weird  and  sublime.  Four  solemn  prophets  look  down 
from  the  clouds  upon  the  fated  city  to  which  avenging  angels 
are  descending.  Below  we  see  the  horrors  of  the  conquest, 
and'  the  entrance  of  the  Roman  legions.  The  high-priest  is 
about  to  slay  himself;  the  wandering  Jew  flies  forth,  pursued 
by  the  Furies ;  while  a  Christian  family,  protected  by  angelic 
guardians,  departs  in  peace.  This  "  Destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem "  was  also  completed  in  oils  for  the  King  of  Bavaria. 


426 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


All  should  examine  for  themselves  the  photographs  which 
convey  to  us  at  least  the  arrangement  and  expression  of  these 
remarkable  works,  and  should  familiarize  themselves  with 
engravings  of  such  paintings  as  the  "  Opening  of  the  Tomb  of 
Charlemagne,"  or  the  minor  but  popular  illustrations  from 
Shakespeare  and  Goethe.  Since  Kaulbach's  death,  Piloty  has 
taken  the  place  of  art-leader  in  Munich,  and  has  many  Ger- 
man and  American  pupils. 

The  same  tendency  to  the  ideal,  so  strongly  evident  in 
the  aspirations  and  art  of  Germany,  showed  itself  likewise  in 
impressible  France.  Ary  Scheffer  (1795-1858),  born  at  Dort, 
of  Dutch  and  German  parents,  is  so  identified  with  France 
by  history  and  residence  that  he  is  always  numbered  among 
the  painters  of  that  country.  His  mother,  left  a  widow  in 
needy  circumstances,  removed  to  Paris  with  her  family,  of 
whom  Ary  was  the  eldest,  and  the  one  to  whom  they  natural- 
ly looked  for  support.  This  burden  of  responsibility  and 
anxiety  doubtless  helped  to  sadden  his  already  melancholy 
spirit.  But  the  warmest  affection  existed  between  him  and 
the  devoted  mother  whose  pure  and  elevated  influence  was 
so  marked  throughout  his  life,  and  so  tenderly  commemo- 
rated by  Scheffer  himself  in  his  well-known  picture  of  "  St. 
Monica  and  St.  Augustine."  Gaining  some  money  and  celeb- 
rity by  the  sale  of  dornestic  genre  scenes,  which  were  his  first 
efforts,  he  obtained  a  commission  to  paint  the  portrait  of 
Lafayette,  through  whose  political  teachings  he  became  an 
Orleanist.  An  interesting  account  of  his  long  connection 
with  the  Orleans  family,  to  whom  he  clung  during  prosperity 
and  adversity,  will  be  found  in  Mrs.  Grote's  biography  of 
the  artist.  His  retiring  nature  shrank  from  publicity  and 


PAINTING  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.      42? 

praise ;  and  when  separated  from  his  royal  friends  he  led  a 
semi-secluded  life  in  his  Parisian  house  and  studio,  Rue 
Chaptal,  where  he  painted  those  devotional  and  dreamy  pict- 
ures which  for  the  most  part  passed  into  the  hands  of  private 
individuals,  or  into  the  possession  of  his  only  daughter, 
not,  however,  before  they  had  been  made  widely  famous  by 
photographs  and  engravings. 

All  these  works,  both  in  form  and  color,  are  open  to  severe 
criticism ;  yet  their  deep,  poetic  charm  keeps  its  hold  upon 
the  heart.  Anatomy  would  stand  aghast  at  Scheffer's  lanky 
shapes,  whose  length  from  the  waist  downward  is  something 
marvelous  to  contemplate.  His  coloring  was  based  upon 
the  theory  that  spiritual  emotions  were  only  to  be  expressed 
by  dull,  faded,  and  ashy  tones;  and  he  therefore  affected 
white,  blue,  cloudy  gray,  and  an  extraordinary  pale  brick-red 
and  salmon  pink,  most  prominently  displayed  in  his  "  Temp- 
tation of  Christ,"  in  the  Luxembourg,  and  in  the  "  Dante 
and  Beatrice,"  exhibited  at  the  Boston  Athenaeum.  "  Christus 
Consolator,"  and  "Christus  Remunerator,"  have  all  his  faults 
and  merits ;  while  a  remarkable  painting,  called  "  The  Groan- 
ings,"  or  "  Les  Douleurs  de  la  Terre,"  is  a  wonderful  instance 
of  the  power  and  beauty  of  his  conceptions.  It  is  meant  to 
show  the  rise  of  the  soul,  through  the  griefs  of  earth,  to 
heaven;  and  "consists  of  figures  grouped  together,  those 
nearest  earth  bowed  down  and  overwhelmed  with  the  most 
crushing  and  hopeless  sorrow;  above  them  are  those  who 
are  beginning  to  look  upward,  and  the  sorrow  in  their  faces 
is  subsiding  into  anxious  inquiry ;  still  above  them  are  some 
who,  having  caught  a  gleam  of  the  sources  of  consolation,  ex- 
press a  solemn  calmness ;  and  still  higher,  rising  in  the  air, 


428  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

figures  with  clasped  hands  and  absorbed,  upward  gaze,  to 
whose  eye  the  mystery  has  been  unveiled,  the  enigma  solved, 
and  sorrow  glorified."  Scheffer's  compositions  from  "Wil- 
helm  Meister  "  and  "  Faust,"  particularly  "  Margaret  in  the 
Church,"  and  "  Margaret  in  the  Garden,"  are  more  beautiful 
than  even  Kaulbach's.  His  "  Francesca  da  Rimini,"  "  Hebe," 
"Ruth  and  Naomi,"  "Christ  and  St.  John,"  and  "The  Mag- 
dalene at  the  Cross,"  are  also  popular.  At  Versailles  he  is 
seen  in  quite  a  new  character,  appearing,  with  a  less  talented 
brother  Henri,  as  an  historical  painter.  These  and  other 
pictures  of  that  description  belong  to  his  earlier  years,  when 
his  style  was  best  exemplified  in  an  "  Episode  of  the  Retreat 
from  Russia." 

The  manner  of  Paul  Delaroche  (1797-1856)  is  somewhat 
allied  to  that  of  Ary  Scheffer,  though  Scheffer  was  more 
transcendentally  German,  and  Delaroche  more  essentially 
French.  Educated  by  the  classic  Gros,  he  nevertheless  had 
little  sympathy  with  the  antique,  but  preferred  to  work  on 
scenes  of  modern  history  or  religious  sentiment.  "  Joas  res- 
cued by  Josabeth  "  was  his  first  exhibited  picture ;  but  it  is 
slightly  known  in  comparison  with  the  "  Joan  of  Arc  in  Pris- 
on," "  Young  Princes  in  the  Tower,"  and  "  Cromwell  looking 
upon  Charles  I.  in  his  Coffin,"  executed  between  the  years 
1824  and  1832.  Delaroche  was  equally  ready  to  illustrate 
the  romantic  incidents  of  English  as  well  as.  of  French  his- 
tory ;  for  while  he  has  given  us  "  Cardinal  Richelieu  on  the 
Rhone,"  "  Death  of  the  Due  de  Guise,"  "  Napoleon  at  Fon- 
tainebleau,"  "  The  Girondists,"  and  "  Condemnation  of  Ma- 
rie Antoinette,"  he  also  painted  "  Strafford  on  his  Way  to  the 
Scaffold,"  "  Execution  of  Lady  Jane  Grey,"  and  "  Death  of 


PAINTING  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.      A2g 

Queen  Elizabeth."  These  are  all  simply  though  powerfully 
treated,  and  excellently  colored ;  with  their  tragic  and  pa- 
thetic elements  strikingly  but  not  coarsely  rendered.  His 
religious  pieces  verge  toward  the  melodramatic,  but  generally 
subside  into  such  intensity  of  feeling  as  is  visible  in  his 
"Mary  at  the  Cross,"  "The  Virgin  led  home  by  St.  John 
after  the  Crucifixion,"  "  Christ  in  Gethsemane,"  and  the  effec- 
tive series  on  the  events  of  Good  Friday.  Of  a  less  tragic 
nature  are  the  lovely  little  "  Moses  in  the  Bulrushes,"  owned 
by  Baron  Rothschild,  and  "St.  Cecilia  supported  by  Angels." 
The  traveler  will  be  disappointed  to  find  so  few  of  Dela- 
roche's  paintings  accessible  in  Paris.  Many  have  been  pur- 
chased for  private  collections,  while  others  are  frequently 
sent  for  exhibition  to  England.  In  the  year  1874  the  "  Crom- 
well looking  upon  the  Corpse  of  Charles  I."  was  at  Blois, 
and  the  "  Death  of  Queen  Elizabeth,"  and  the  "Princes  in 
the  Tower,"  hung  in  the  Gallery  of  the  Luxembourg.  But 
as  the  works  of  all  great  deceased  French  masters  are,  within 
a  certain  period  after  their  death,  removed  to  the  Louvre, 
these,  together  with  the  pictures  of  Delacroix  and  other  dis- 
tinguished artists,  have  been  so  transferred. 

The  large  fresco  called  the  "  He'micycle,"  in  the  School 
of  the  Fine  Arts,  Paris,  was  Delaroche's  most  ambitious  pro- 
duction ;  occupying  him  enthusiastically  for  four  years,  but 
receiving  such  injury  from  fire  in  1855  that  we  now  see  it 
only  in  its  restored  condition.  It  represents  the  arts  of  dif- 
ferent nations  and  different  centuries,  with  varied  groups  of 
over  seventy  architects,  sculptors,  and  painters.  It  is  said 
that  the  figure  emblematic  of  Gothic  architecture  is  the  por- 
trait of  Delaroche's  wife,  the  daughter  of  Horace  Vernet, 


43° 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


whom  her  father  had  previously  painted  as  a  peasant-girl  in 
his  "  Meeting  of  Michael  Angelo  and  Raphael." 

In  character,  Paul  Delaroche  was  grave  and  introspec- 
tive ;  very  studious  and  painstaking ;  passionately  attached 
to  his  art,  but  caring  more  for  the  quality  than  for  the  quan- 
tity of  his  compositions.  His  keen  sensibilities,  repressed 
through  a  quiet  life,  found  perpetual  expression  in  his 
pictures. 

Eugene  Delacroix  (1799-1863)  is  bold,  romantic,  and 
spirited  in  style ;  but  less  refined  and  more  theatrical  than 
Delaroche.  His  earliest  inspiration  was  drawn  from  the  "  In- 
ferno," in  his  "  Dante  and  Virgil  in  the  Bark  of  Phlegyas," 
and  was  vivid  with  all  a  Frenchman's  imagination.  He  may 
be  considered  the  Victor  Hugo  of  Parisian  painting ;  depict- 
ing on  his  canvas  grand  effects  of  passion,  terror,  or  pathos, 
very  richly  and  strongly  colored.  The  "  Massacre  of  Scio," 
"  The  Shipwrecked,"  "  Sardanapalus,"  "  Algerian  Women," 
and  a  "  Jewish  Wedding,"  are  among  his  best  oil-paintings; 
while  the  number  of  what  Liibke  calls  his  "  monumental 
works  "  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  dome  of  the  Luxem- 
bourg, church  of  St.-Sulpice,  and  Apollo  Gallery  of  the 
Louvre,  testify  to  the  complacency  with  which  his  country- 
men regarded  his  talents. 

It  would  be  an  ungracious  task  to  criticise  the  abilities  of 
any  very  recent  or  still  living  artists,  and  we  shall  therefore 
only  refer  to  the  peculiar  line  which  each  has  chosen.  Few 
persons  are  indifferent  to  the  modern  art  of  France ;  but 
either  commend  or  condemn  it  in  energetic  terms,  as  it  strikes 
them  on  its  attractive  or  repulsive  side.  Affectation,  sensu- 
ality, unnecessary  nudity,  exaggeration  of  Nature,  and  exag- 


THE  FINDING  OF  MOSES  (Paul  Delaroche). 


p-  430- 


PAINTING  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.      ,„ 

geration  of  sentiment,  are  its  standard  dangers,  while  its 
standard  excellences  lie  in  a  realism  entirely  faithful  yet 
eminently  picturesque,  an  easy  grace  which  seems  to  be  in- 
tuitive and  not  the  reward  of  toil,  a  naiveti  which  does  not 
exactly  correspond  with  the  English  word  simplicity,  a  native 
faculty  for  color-blending,  great  adaptability  of  power,  and 
dramatic  vividness.  These  last  qualities  will  be  sure  to  sug- 
gest the  works  of  Jean  Le"on  G£r6me,  born  in  1824,  whose 
Eastern  and  classic  pictures  are  so  familiar  to  both  the  Eng- 
lish and  American  public.  Since  1855,  the  date  of  his  splen- 
did painting  entitled  the  "  Age  of  Augustus  and  the  Birth  of 
Jesus  Christ,"  he  has  produced  many  compositions  of  such 
singular  individuality  as  "  The  Duel  after  a  Masked  Ball," 
"  The  Gladiators,"  "  The  Augurs,"  "  King  Candaules," 
'  Death  of  Caesar,"  "  Phryne  before  the  Areopagus,"  "  Louis 
XIV.  and  Moliere,"  "Cleopatra  before  Augustus,"  and  "Re- 
turn from  Calvary."  These,  however,  are  not  so  popular  as 
the  strongly-colored,  dusky,  and  elaborate  studies  from  Ori- 
ental life,  presented  in  his  "  Slave-Market,"  "  Street-Scene  in 
Cairo,"  "Prayer  in  the  Desert,"  "Muezzin,"  or  "Couriers 
of  the  Pasha."  A  new  work,  called  "  La  Danse  du  Sabre," 
is  at  present  exhibited  in  London. 

Alexandre  Gabriel  Decamps  (1803-1860)  is  also  famous 
for  Eastern  scenes,  poetically  and  richly  painted,  with  effec- 
tive contrast  of  light  and  shade.  Fromentin  gives  us  less 
brilliant  Oriental  views,  or  wild  Arab  wanderings.  Bonnat 
draws  inspiration  from  Italy  ;  while  Landelle  attempts  "  Fel- 
lah Women,"  "  Moorish  Girls,"  delineations  of  Southern  na- 
tional life,  or  such  religious  groups  as  "  Ecstasy  and  Prayer." 
Jean  Louis  Hamon  is  unusually  graceful  in  conception.  All 


432 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


have  seen  engravings  of  his  "  Muses  at  Pompeii,"  "  Aurora," 
"  Twilight,"  "  Cupid  en  Visite,"  or  "  Lamenting  Autumn  ex- 
tinguishing the  Flowers." 

Robert  Fleury,  born  in  1787,  and  educated  under  Horace 
Vernet,  has  perpetuated  the  historical  style  in  such  pictures 
as  "  St.  Bartholomew's  Eve,"  "  Procession  of  the  League," 
"  Charles  V.  at  the  Monastery  of  St.  Just,"  and  Persecu- 
tions or  Insurrections  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Muller's  "  Call 
of  the  Condemned,"  in  the  Luxembourg,  is  one  of  the  most 
powerful  of  modern  historical  pieces.  Hippolyte  Flandrin 
(1815—1864)  painted  saints  and  martyrs,  somewhat  in  the 
manner  of  Andrea  del  Sarto,  and  has  left  noble  frescoes  in 
St.-Germain  des  Pre"s  and  St. -Vincent  de  Paul,  Paris.  Sig- 
ners sacred  compositions,  Dubufe's  "  Prodigal  Son,"  Protais's 
battle-pieces,  Compte's  historical  genre  scenes,  Couture's 
more  pretentious  productions,  and  Boulanger's  Roman  views, 
should  be  noticed  in  this  connection.  Boulanger's  interest- 
ing picture  of  tl  The  Via  Appia  in  the  Time  of  Augustus  "  is 
in  the  collection  of  Mr.  Stewart,  of  New  York,  who  also  owns 
Rosa  Bonheur's  "  Horse  Fair." 

The  varying  opinions  expressed  of  Paul  Gustave  Dore 
render  it  quite  uncertain  what  place  he  will  occupy  in  the 
estimation  of  posterity.  At  the  present  day  everybody  buys 
his  illustrations  and  finds  fault  with  his  pictures.  Incorrect 
form  and  crudeness  of  color  are  his  technical  defects.  Fan- 
tastic, imaginative,  and  sensational  in  a  degree  possible  only 
to  a  Frenchman,  he  has  produced  many  remarkable  works, 
of  which  the  best  are  his  designs  for  "The  Wandering  Jew," 
Dante's  4<  Inferno,"  Tennyson's  poems,  and  other  standard 
books.  His  management  of  light  and  shade  in  engravings 


PAINTING  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 

*r*5o 

and  neutral  tints  is  broad  and  admirable ;  but  he  loses  by 
color.  Yet  the  treatment  of  color  is  made  one  of  the  most 
striking  points  in  his  late  picture,  "  The  Dream  of  Pilate's 
Wife,"  before  whom  is  spread,  in  dim,  cloud-like  perspective, 
the  vision  of  the  crucifixion  and  the  world-triumph  of  the 
Crucified,  while  the  radiance  of  the  angel  pointing  to  the 
mystical  sight  blends  with  the  firelight  shining  down  the 
staircase  from  an  open  door.  Dore"  was  born  at  Strasbourg, 
in  1832,  and  labors  with  amazing  rapidity,  usually  upon  very 
large  compositions.-  He  has  two  studios  in  Paris,  and  an 
exhibition-room  in  London,  filled  with  his  paintings,  the  last 
of  which  is  a  colossal  work  entitled  "  L'Enfer." 

Jean  Louis  Ernest  Meissonier,  a  native  of  Lyons,  about 
twenty  years  Dora's  senior,  devotes  more  time  to  a  quarter- 
inch  of  canvas  than  Dor£  to  a  square  yard.  His  pictures  are 
small,  and  worth  their  weight  in  gold.  They  are  so  marvel- 
ously  finished  that  it  seems  as  if  every  stroke  must  have  been 
executed  with  a  microscope.  He  confines  himself  principally 
to  military  and  genre  scenes,  and  groups  of  portrait-figures, 
such  as  the  "  Chess-players,"  "  Little  Messenger,"  "  The 
Smoker,"  "At  the  Inn,"  or  "Napoleon  III.  and  his  Officers." 
In  the  latter  painting,  the  face  of  every  officer,  though  not  so 
large  as  a  pea,  is  an  excellent  likeness.  Charles  Blanc  tells 
us  that  Meissonier  practises  such  excessive  care  in  the  choice 
and  purity  of  his  materials  that  his  paintings  will  be  as  en- 
during as  the  masterpieces  of  the  fifteenth  century. 

Bouguereau's  graceful  figures,  with  their  soft,  warm  flesh- 
tints,  are  renewed  through  every  Parisian  exhibition,  and  oc- 
casionally find  their  way  to  this  country.  "  Far  from  Home," 
<:  Mother's  Joy,"  "  The  Twins,"  "  Italian  Women  at  the  Foun- 


434 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


tain,"  "  The  Little  Marauders,"  and  several  others,  have  been 
beautifully  engraved.  "  Young  Girls  at  the  Bath  "  afford  him 
never-failing  subjects  for  the  brush.  He  has  lately  completed 
a  "  Holy  Family,"  and  an  allegorical  piece  entitled  "  Flora 
and  the  Zephyr." 

Studies  from  peasant-life,  by  Jules  Breton  and  Fran9ois 
Millet,  are  also  widely  praised.  The  "  Blessing  of  the  Corn," 
in  the  Luxembourg,  is  Ere" ton's  chef-d'oeuvre.  The  realistic 
Courbet  adopted  the  pre-Raphaelite  style,  and  is  celebrated 
both  in  genre  and  landscape.  His  "  Stone-cutters  "  and 
"  Woman  with  the  Parrot  "  indicate  his  abilities  in  the  former 
line ;  while,  in  addition  to  his  great  reputation  as  an  artist,  he 
has  won  less  enviable  notoriety  as  a  member  of  the  Paris 
Commune.  Edouard  Frere  and  Merle  charm  us  with  simple 
and  touching  faces,  pure  and  holy  in  expression.  Frere  was 
a  pupil  of  Paul  Delaroche,  and  his  genre  pieces  and  child- 
figures  have  awakened  even  Ruskin's  enthusiasm.  Henriette 
Brown  pursues  the  same  branch  of  axt,  but  with  less  talent. 
Cabanel's  "St.-Louis"  and  "Francesca  da  Rimini"  grace  the 
Luxembourg,  and  his  later  pictures  the  annual  exhibitions. 
Fortuny,  Toulmouche,  Vibert,  Compte  Calix,  and  Saintin, 
excel  in  genre.  Fantin,  as  a  flower-painter,  and  DesgofFe,  as  an 
artist  of  still-life,  deserve  and  receive  high  commendation  ; 
while  many  landscapists  have  distinguished  themselves  by 
idyllic  beauty,  fine  aerial  perspective,  tender  sentiment,  or 
homely  force.  Among  these  we  may  number  Lambinet,  Corot, 
Dupre,  Paul  Flandin,  Rousseau,  Daubigny,  and  Diaz,  not  for- 
getting, of  course,  Auguste  Bonheur,  Courbet,  or  Constantine 
Troyon,  who  was  not  only  a  pioneer  in  that  direction,  but 
shares  Rosa  Bonheur's  distinction  as  an  animal -painter. 


PAINTING  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.      435 

Troyon  was  particularly  fond  of  oxen,  which  he  liked  to  set 
in  a  landscape  of  gray,  cool  color. 

The  fame  of  Rosa  Bonheur  has  been  long  established. 
Born  at  Bordeaux,  in  1822,  she  has  always  devoted  her  pencil 
to  her  favorite  cattle,  and  may  now  compete  with  Paul  Potter 
and  Landseer.  Hamerton  insists  that  it  is  the  English  love 
for  horses,  and  not  for  art,  which  has  made  her  "  Horse  Fair  " 
so  renowned  ;  but  it  needs  no  such  explanation  to  compre- 
hend its  popularity.  Next  to  it  in  celebrity  may  be  ranked 
the  "  Ploughing  in  the  Nivernois,"  in  the  Luxembourg.  Many 
stories  are  told  of  her  fondness  for  animals,  including  the  pet 
sheep  which  she  kept  in  her  Parisian  apartment ;  and  ac- 
counts of  visits  to  her  studio-farm  have  often  informed  the 
public  of  her  habits  and  daily  life. 

The  comparison  of  Edwin  Landseer  (1802-1873)  with 
Rosa  Bonheur  offers  a  natural  transition  from  the  French  to 
the  English  school.  But  in  this  instance  we  must  admit  that 
in  grace  and  poetic  feeling  the  Englishman  is  vastly  superior. 
With  Rosa  Bonheur  a  sheep  is  a  most  admirable,  faithful,  and 
natural  sheep,  but  still  a  sheep,  and  nothing  more !  It  has 
no  special  sympathy  with  humanity.  But  the  sentiment  of 
Landseer's  paintings  is  their  greatest  attraction.  You  quite 
appreciate  the  individuality  of  his  "  Dignity  and  Impudence," 
and  read  their  feelings  in  their  faces  just  as  easily  as  if  they 
were  your  social  brethren.  "  High  Life  and  Low  Life  "  is  a 
canine  novel.  The  "  Hunted  Stag  "  has  almost  the  pathos  of 
a  human  death-scene ;  while  the  "Old  Shepherd's  Chief 
Mourner  "  is  fidelity  and  grief  itself.  Only  profound  genius 
could  so  accomplish  its  purpose  ;  and  we  are  not  astonished 
to  hear  that  the  talents  even  of  his  babyhood  plainly  indi- 


436  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

cated  Landseer's  vocation.  He  began  to  sketch  at  five  years 
old,  and  at  the  age  of  thirteen  obtained  a  prize  medal  for  the 
drawing  of  an  Alpine  mastiff.  This  extreme  precocity  joined 
with  diligent  application  at  the  Academy,  and  in  Haydon's 
studio,  where  he  enthusiastically  dissected  a  dead  lion,  laid 
the  foundation  of  a  permanent  success.  Possibly  his  recol- 
lections of  that  identical  lion  were  subsequently  embodied  in 
the  kingly  but  amiable  beasts  in  Trafalgar  Square. 

In  1820  his  "  Dogs  of  St.  Bernard  reanimating  a  Distressed 
Traveler  "  was  exhibited  and  engraved.  Two  years  later  his 
"  Larder  invaded  "  won  a  premium  of  a  hundred  and  fifty 
pounds.  Dogs  were  his  first  love,  though  he  afterward  deline- 
ated deer  with  the  same  affection  and  accuracy.  His  work  was 
sometimes  so  rapid  that  "  he  has  been  known  to  paint,  from  the 
first  outlining  to  the  last  touch  of  the  brush,  and  of  the  size  of 
life,  a  dog  and  birds,  the  head  and  body  of  a  fallow  deer,  or 
a  fox  examining  a  trap,  in  a  couple  of  hours,  without  any 
appearance  of  incompleteness."  According  to  Wornum,  he 
exhibited  one  hundred  and  seventy-three  pictures  in  fifty-one 
years.  His  drawing,  though  perfectly  free,  was  perfectly  cor- 
rect ;  his  touch  vigorous,  yet  extremely  delicate  ;  and  nothing 
can  surpass  his  imitation  of  all  varieties  of  fur,  feathers,  horns, 
and  hair.  It  is  true  that  his  human  beings  were  not  equal  to 
his  animals  ;  yet  he  has  displayed  fine,  vivacious  figure-paint- 
ing in  his  "  Bolton  Abbey  in  the  Olden  Time,"  "  Dialogue  at 
Waterloo,"  and  "Return  from  Hunting." 

A  visit  to  the  Highlands,  in  the  year  1826,  procured  him 
the  long-desired  opportunity  of  studying  the  deer  in  his  na- 
tive haunts,  to  which  we  owe  "  Seeking  Sanctuary,"  "  Mon- 
arch of  the  Glen,"  "  Children  of  the  Mist,"  "  Night,"  "  Morn- 


PAINTING  IN   THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.    43? 

ing,"  and  other  landscape-pieces.  In  some  of  these  Highland 
scenes  Landseer  renders  the  fleetness  of  the  stag,  but  usually 
he  depicts  his  animals  in  repose,  looking  out  from  the  canvas 
with  expressions  which  rise  from  instinct  almost  into  soul. 

During  a  busy  life,  prolonged  to  more  than  seventy  years, 
Landseer's  merits  and  popularity  never  decreased.  One  of 
his  later  paintings,  completed  in  1864,  entitled  "  Man  pro- 
poses and  God  disposes,"  representing  two  polar  bears  com- 
ing upon  the  relics  of  Sir  John  Franklin's  expedition,  sold 
for  about  thirteen  thousand  dollars  of  our  money.  His  coun- 
try enriched  him  with  deserved  honors.  He  was  made  a 
baronet  by  the  queen  in  1850,  and  was  publicly  buried  in  St. 
Paul's  Cathedral. 

A  large  collection  of  Landseer's  works  can  be  viewed  at 
the  London  and  Kensington  Galleries.  Many  others  have 
been  secured  by  English  noblemen ;  but  the  finest  are  so  ex- 
cellently engraved  by  himself  or  his  brother  Charles  (who  is 
also  an  admirable  painter)  that  no  one  need  be  ignorant  of 
their  beauties.  We  may  add  to  those  already  mentioned, 
"Chevy  Chase,"  "Hawking,"  "Windsor  Castle  in  Modern 
Times,"  "  The  Shepherd's  Prayer,"  "  Highland  Music,"  "  Shoe- 
ing the  Mare,"  "  The  Life's  in  the  Old  Dog  yet,"  "  Time  of 
Peace  and  Time  of  War,"  "  The  Traveled  Monkey,"  "  Alex- 
ander and  Diogenes,"  "  Our  Poor  Relations,"  "  The  Arab 
Tent,"  "  The  Challenge,"  "  The  Stag  at  Bay,"  "  The  Ran- 
dom Shot,"  "  The  Maid  and  Magpie,"  and  "  The  Piper  and 
Nutcrackers."  Ruskin's  description  of  his  masterpiece,  "  The 
Old  Shepherd's  Chief  Mourner,"  will  well  repay  the  reading. 

Leaving  the  department  of  animal  painting,  in  which 
Landseer  distances  all  competitors,  the  pictures  of  Daniel 


438 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


Maclise  (1811-1870),  particularly  his  mural  decorations  in 
the  Houses  of  Parliament,  attract  attention.  These  large 
compositions  are  executed  in  stereo-chromatic  colors,  that  is, 
colors  mixed  with  water-glass,  as  are  those  of  Kaulbach's 
frescoes  at  Berlin.  But  it  is  feared  that  in  point  of  dura- 
bility the  experiment  will  not  be  successful.  The  finest  of 
the  series  are  "  The  Meeting  of  Wellington  and  Bliicher  after 
Waterloo,"  and  "  The  Death  of  Nelson,"  in  the  Royal  Gal- 
lery, which  Scott,  in  his  "  Half-Hour  Lectures  on  the  Fine 
Arts,"  calls  the  noblest  paintings  in  England.  The  adorn- 
ment of  the  Parliament  Houses  had  already  been  attempted 
by  several  artists,  of  whom  William  Dyce  was  the  most  promi- 
nent. He  was  commissioned  to  ornament  the  queen's  robing- 
room  with  the  legend  of  King  Arthur ;  but  the  colors,  spread 
upon  wet  plaster  in  the  ordinary  fresco  method,  grew  so 
miserably  dim  and  weak  that  Dyce's  efforts  were  an  utter 
failure,  and  he  died  a  mortified  and  disappointed  man.  The 
stereo-chromatic  process  adopted  by  Maclise  has  thus  far 
better  served  its  purpose. 

Maclise  was  a  native  of  Cork,  but  of  Scotch  descent.  He 
came  to  London  when  but  seventeen  years  old,  and  before 
he  was  nineteen  exhibited  the  "  Malvolio  and  the  Countess," 
from  Shakespeare's  "  Twelfth  Night,"  now  in  the  National 
Gallery.  The  "  Mokanna  unveiled,"  and  "  All-hallow  Eve," 
produced  some  years  afterward  in  Ireland,  were  cordially  re- 
ceived by  the  public ;  and  his  "  Merry  Christmas  at  the 
Baron's  Hall  "  secured  his  election  as  an  Academician  in 
1840.  He  was  always  a  favorite  book-illustrator,  and  genre 
and  historical  painter.  His  coloring  and  grouping  have  been 
sharply  criticised,  but  his  designs  are  broadly  treated  and 


PAINTING  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.      43y 

full  of  spirit.  Charles  Dickens,  whose  portrait  he  painted, 
and  with  whom  he  was  on  terms  of  friendly  intimacy,  has 
eulogized  him  as  "  the  gentlest  and  most  modest  of  men." 

Augustus  Egg,  born  in  London,  in  1816,  followed  the  line 
of  genre,  sometimes  varied  by  scenes  of  contemporary  history. 
The  composition  from  "  Le  Diable  Boiteux  "  in  the  National 
Gallery,  "  Life  and  Death  of  Buckingham,"  and  "  Past  and 
Present,"  are  regarded  as  his  most  interesting  works.  He 
died  at  Algiers,  in  1863.  His  contemporary,  John  Phillip,  of 
Aberdeen  (1817-1867),  has  left  some  good  Scottish  pictures; 
but  gained  much  more  celebrity  by  his  glowing,  effective 
Spanish  views.  The  landscapes  of  Thomas  Creswick  (1811- 
1869)  may  also  be  referred  to  this  period. 

The  most  conspicuous  feature  of  English  art  in  the  pres- 
ent century  has,  however,  been  the  growth  and  decline  of 
pre-Raphaelitism.  This  movement,  so  often  spoken  of,  but 
so  seldom  defined,  originated,  as  in  Germany,  with  a  few 
young  painters,  but  was  not  animated  by  the  religious  fervor 
of  Cornelius  and  Overbeck.  The  faithful  imitation  of  Na- 
ture, down  to  its  minutest  details,  was  the  main  English  prin- 
ciple. They  did  not  profess  to  admire  the  idealism,  but  only 
the  purism,  of  such  Italian  masters  as  preceded  Raphael ;  and 
adhered  rather  to  the  realism  of  Masaccio  and  Ghirlandajo 
than  to  the  unworldliness  of  Fra  Angelico.  "They  espoused 
fidelity  to  Nature  as  St.  Francis  espoused  poverty."  With 
William  Holman  Hunt,  Millais,  and  Rossetti  for  leaders,  and 
Ruskin  for  critic,  they  cannot  complain  of  having  been  either 
neglected  or  unsuccessful. 

Holman  Hunt,  the  son  of  a  London  warehouseman,  was 

born  in  Cheapside,  in  1827;  and  in  1846  exhibited  his  first 
29 


44o  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

picture,  a  little  girl  holding  a  watch  to  her  ear,  entitled 
"  Hark  !  "  This  was  followed  by  "  Little  Nell  and  her 
Grandfather."  His  pre-Raphaelite  style  developed  itself 
about  1850  in  the  ''British  Family  sheltering  a  Christian  Mis- 
sionary from  the  Persecution  of  the  Druids,"  and  "  Rienzi 
vowing  to  revenge  the  Death  of  his  Brother."  "  The  Hireling 
Shepherd,"  "Claudio  and  Isabella,"  and  "  Isabella  with  the 
Pot  of  Basil,"  the  latter  of  which  is  owned  by  Mr.  Johnston, 
of  New  York,  are  executed  in  accordance  with  the  same 
artistic  rules.  The  "  Light  of  the  World,"  completed  in  1854, 
one  of  his  best  and  most  widely-known  paintings,  represent- 
ing the  Saviour,  who  stands  by  night,  bearing  a  lantern,  and 
knocking  at  a  closed,  vine-grown  gate,  has  been  presented  to 
Keble  College,  Oxford.  "The  Scapegoat,"  a  most  expres- 
sive piece,  was  studied,  it  is  said,  in  Palestine,  whither  the 
author  journeyed,  "  for  the  sole  purpose  of  painting  a  real 
Eastern  goat  in  a  real  Eastern  wilderness."  In  1860  ap- 
peared his  "  Christ  in  the  Temple,"  which  created  a  profound 
sensation  throughout  England,  and  has  been  extravagantly 
praised.  The  Virgin  stoops  to  embrace  the  divine  Child, 
whose  look  is  anxious  and  sad.  The  figure  of  Joseph  and  a 
group  of  rabbis  make  up  the  composition,  together  with  care- 
fully-rendered accessories  of  wprkmen  laboring  outside,  and 
a  beggar  asking  alms.  Hamerton  alludes  to  this  as  "  the 
culminating  and  representative  pre-Raphaelite  figure-pict- 
ure." But  possibly  he  might  now  waive  its  claims  in  favor 
of  a  still  later  production,  exhibiting  at  present  in  London, 
called  "  The  Shadow  of  Death."  It  is  a  sunset  scene,  show- 
ing us  the  carpenter-shop  of  .Joseph,  where  Christ  has  been 
all  day  employed.  He  rises  from  labor,  and  stretches  out  his 


PAINTING  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.     44I 

arms  in  an  attitude  of  weariness.  His  shadow  thus  falls 
upon  the  opposite  wall  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  while  the  tool 
held  in  his  hand  is  so  reflected  as  to  enhance  the  suggestion 
of  the  crucifixion.  The  Virgin,  who  is  seated  on  the  floor 
with  her  back  to  the  spectator,  counting  over  the  gifts  once 
brought  by  the  magi,  suddenly  glances  up  in  alarm  at  sight 
of  the  ominous  shadow  ;  while  far  through  the  open  window 
is  seen  the  perspective  of  a  Judean  landscape.  Such  opposite 
and  energetic  opinions  of  admiration  or  dislike  have  been 
expressed  in  regard  to  this  picture  that  I  shall  say  nothing 
of  my  own  impressions,  but  leave  my  readers  some  future 
opportunity  of  judging  for  themselves.  They  may  be  inter- 
ested in  knowing  that  it  sold  for  ten  thousand  pounds. 

John  Everett  Millais,  born  at  Southampton,  in  1829,  has 
shared  with  Hunt  pre-Raphaelite  laurels.  His  early  historic 
efforts,  "  Pizarro  seizing  the  Men  of  Peru,"  and  "  Tribe  of 
Benjamin  seizing  the  Daughters  of  Shiloh,"  were  succeeded 
by  "  Christ  in  the  House  of  his  Parents,"  the  favorite  "  Hu- 
guenot Lovers,"  "  Ophelia,"  "  Mariana,"  "  The  Lost  Piece  of 
Money,"  and  "  The  Rescue."  Two  less  striking  pieces  are  very 
full  of  sentiment — "  The  Vale  of  Rest,"  a  convent-yard,  "with 
its  silent  trees,  pale-green  twilight,  heavy  purple  horizon,  and 
a  tough,  joyless  pair  of  sisters,  working  steadily  among  the 
mould;"  and  "Autumn  Leaves,"  where  a  band  of  charm- 
ing children  are  burning  the  leaves  which  have  fallen  from 
the  trees  around  them.  "  The  Black  Brunswicker,"  another 
love  farewell;  "Aaron  and  Hur  holding  up  the  Hands  of 
Moses ;  "  and  "  Romans  leaving  Britain,"  are  more  forcible, 
but  not  more  pleasing ;  while  his  "  Chill  October  "  and  "  Fair- 
light  Downs  "  indicate  his  unexpected  abilities  as  a  land- 


442  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

scapist.  Ruskin  mourns  over  Millais's  abandonment  of  his 
old  principles;  yet  his  picture  of  1872,  "Hearts  are  Trumps," 
displays  no  loss  of  power.  "  New-laid  Eggs,"  "  Yes  or  No," 
and  later  works,  are  pretty  but  commonplace. 

The  maxims  of  pre-Raphaelitism  are  of  course  eminently 
adaptable  to  landscape  subjects — the  sole  difficulty  being 
that  the  painter  must  stop  somewhere ;  and  that  it  is,  there- 
fore, like  many  other  earthly  problems,  only  a  question  of 
where  to  draw  the  line.  Judicious  "  selection  "  is  as  neces- 
sary to  art  as  to  Darwinism.  The  enthusiast  who  studied 
foregrounds  of  stones,  beetles,  mullein-stalks,  and  mushrooms, 
forgot  that  no  amount  of  truth  can  ever  make  ugliness  beau- 
tiful, and  that  ugliness  for  its  own  sake  is  of  no  artistic  or 
moral  value  whatever;  also  that  landscape-painting  is  not 
merely  the  imitation,  but  the  interpretation  of  Nature.  But 
where  quick  perceptions  and  real  feeling  for  beauty  are 
joined  to  that  technical  skill  for  which  we  are  greatly  in- 
debted to  the  new  method,  the  results  become  very  attractive 
and  valuable.  Copious  notices  of  the  most  promising  living 
landscapists,  such  as  Hook,  Cooper,  Brett,  the  Linnells,  Cooke, 
Cole,  Bough,  Graham,  Whistler,  and  others,  will  be  found, 
from  time  to  time,  in  the  Portfolio,  the  instructive  art  peri- 
odical edited  by  Mr.  Hamerton,  with  good  illustrations  of 
their  works. 

A  natural  reaction  from  excessive  realism  drew  George 
Frederick  Watts  and  Frederick  Leighton  to  a  more  ideal 
style.  Yet  the  portraits  of  Watts  are  most  life-like  and 
characteristic,  and  deserve  as  mtich  admiration  as  his  "  Diana 
and  Endymion,"  or  "  Daphne."  Like  Maclise,  he  was  em- 
ployed in  the  frescoes  of  the  Houses  of  Parliament.  He  now 


YES  OK  No  (Miltais? 


P-  44*- 


PAINTING  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 

443 

stands,  with  Sir  Francis  Grant,  James  Sant,  and  John  Knight, 
at  the  head  of  English  portrait-painting.  Leighton,  seme 
years  younger  than  Watts,  spent  his  early  life  abroad,  where 
he  painted  foreign  pictures  in  a  foreign  manner.  His  "  Pro- 
cession of  Cimabue's  Madonna  through  Florence "  was 
brought  to  London  in  1855,  and  purchased  by  the  queen. 
His  "Star  of  Bethlehem,"  "Triumph  of  Music,"  " Michael 
Angelo  nursing  his  Dying  Servant,"  and  "  Dante  in  Exile," 
are  examples  of  the  same  mode  of  treatment,  which,  from  its 
very  strangeness,  is  fascinating  to  the  English  intellect.  The 
religious  pieces  of  Armitage,  Poole,  Goodall,  and  Dobson, 
have  been  most  favorably  received ;  especially  Dobson 's 
"Nazareth,"  "Bethlehem,"  "Peace  be  to  this  House,"  and 
"  Good  Shepherd." 

The  number  of  British  genre  painters  may  also  be  said  to 
be  legion.  Indeed,  there  is  danger  that  English  art  may  too 
persistently  run  down  to  the  mere  level  of  passing  events,  or 
to  the  fair  but  fugitive  beauties  of  water-colors.  William 
Frith,  of  Yorkshire,  with  such  animated,  familiar,  and  telling 
subjects  as  "  The  Derby  Day,"  "  The  Railway  Station,  "  Horn- 
burg,"  or  "  Life  at  the  Seaside,"  which  have  practically  super- 
seded his  earlier  poetic  or  romantic  themes,  is  the  leader  of 
popular  taste ;  while  Thomas  Faed's  fresh  and  touching  rustic 
scenes  or  more  grave  and  simple  pictures,  as  "  The  Mitherless 
Bairn,"  "Sunday  in  the  Backwoods,"  "  Evangeline,"  "The 
First  Break  in  the  Family,"  and  "From  Dawn  to  Sunset,"  are 
extremely  valuable.  The  engraving  of  "  Scott  and  his  Friends 
at  Abbotsford,"  which  has  long  been  a  favorite  with  collect- 
ors, is  from  a  painting  exhibited  by  Faed  in  1849.  Calderon 
and  Cope  must  not  be  forgotten,  while  John  Frederick  Lewis 


444  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

has  succeeded  in  almost  every  department,  and  is  specially 
popular  for  his  effective  Eastern  scenes.  Sir  Noel  Paton,  Sir 
George  Harvey,  and  D.  Macnee,  are  artists  of  whom  Scotland 
may  be  proud ;  though  Paton's  "  Home  from  the  Crimea," 
which  so  pleased 'the  queen,  has  not  the  peculiar  grace  and 
originality  of  his  pictures  of  fairy-land.  Harvey  is  generally 
known  by  his  picture  of  "Shakespeare  before  Sir  Thomas 
Lucy,"  but  prefers  Scottish  subjects. 

Book-illustrating  has  become  a  separate  and  profitable 
branch  of  art.  The  charm  of  our  best  novels  and  poems  is 
now  enhanced  by  the  addition  of  designs  from  our  best 
painters.  Many  of  the  names  just  recorded  might  be  put 
among  the  list  of  these  contributors  to  the  pleasure  of  the 
reading  public,  not  omitting  Harding,  Gilbert,  Stone,  Foster, 
the  brothers  Dalziel,  Browne,  Cattermole,  Tenneil,  Doyle, 
Cruickshank,  and  Leech. 

Upon  the  water-colorists,  who  include,  among  a  host  of 
others,  such  distinguished  men  as  Copley  Fielding,  fine  alike 
in  marine  and  landscape  views ;  Birket  Foster,  whose  designs 
are  so  dear  to  every  lover  of  Nature ;  Sir  John  Gilbert,  John 
Frederick  Lewis,  Tayler,  Fripp,  Goodall,  and  Carl  Haag,  I 
shall  not  attempt  to  touch,  but  must  leave  them  to  an  abler 
hand.  A  few  words  upon  American  art  may  fitly  close  these 
pages. 

We  have  seen  by  the  biographies  of  West,  Copley,  and 
Leslie,  how  American  genius  was  guided  by  English  culture. 
Their  contemporary,  Washington  Allston,  who  was  born  in 
South  Carolina,  in  1779,  an^  died  of  heart-disease  in  Cam- 
bridge, Massachusetts,  in  1843,  is  more  intimately  associated 
with  American  history.  His  studies  were  pursued  in  England, 


PAINTING  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.      44S 

France,  and  Italy.  During  his  residence  in  London  he  found 
many  friends  and  patrons,  to  whom  he  sold  his  pictures  of 
"  St.  Peter  liberated  by  the  Angel,"  "  Uriel  in  the  Sun,"  and 
"Jacob's  Dream."  Returning  to  his  native  country,  he  set- 
tled first  in  Boston,  and  afterward  in  Cambridge,  where  his 
remaining  works  were  painted.  Some  of  these  are  still  ex- 
hibited in  the  Boston  Athenaeum,  especially  his  portrait  of 
West,  and  his  unfinished  composition  of  "  Belshazzar's  Feast ; " 
others  are  in  private  houses.  "  Spalatro,  or  the  Bloody 
Hand,"  is  in  Mr.  Johnston's  gallery,  New  York.  He  had  a 
strong  liking  for  sacred  and  supernatural  subjects,  as  in  his 
"  Prophet  Jeremiah,"  "  Miriam' singing  the  Song  of  Triumph," 
"  Elijah  in  the  Wilderness,"  "  Dead  Man  restored  to  Life," 
and  "  Saul  with  the  Witch  of  Endor."  The  beauty  of  such 
ideal  heads  as  "  Beatrice  "  and  "  Rosalie  "  has  been  no  less 
deservedly  commended.  Allston  was  handsome,  refined,  and 
engaging  in  person ;  pure,  generous,  and  manly-hearted ; 
deeply  religious,  and  "  full  of  reverence  for  truth  and  of  faith 
in  God."  He  acquired  some  additional  reputation  as  a  poet 
and  novelist  by  his  "  Sylphs  of  the  Seasons,"  "  Paint  King," 
and  tale  of  "  Monaldi." 

Gilbert  Stuart  (1756-1828),  chiefly  remarkable  for  his 
likenesses  of  Washington,  was  a  native  of  Rhode  Island,  who, 
after  studying  in  Scotland  and  London,  became  a  resident 
of  Boston,  and  long  exercised  the  profession  of  portrait- 
painting.  Edward  Malbone  (1777-1807),  also  of  Rhode 
Island,  was  renowned  for  his  miniatures,  which  are  preserved 
in  many  families. 

We  willingly  claim  the  German  artist,  Emmanuel  Leutze, 
of  Wurtemberg  (1816-1868),  who  adopted  this  country  as  his 


446  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

home.  He  was  a  pupil  of  the  Dtisseldorf  school,  an  admirer 
of  Kaulbach,  and  made  historic  painting  his  specialty.  His 
pictures  of  Columbus  and  Washington  are  his  most  popular 
efforts.  A  staircase  panel  in  the  Capitol  at  Washington  is 
adorned  by  his  "Western  Emigration." 

Daniel  Huntington,  of  New  York,  is  both  historic  and 
ideal  in  style.  Those  who  have  attended  the  occasional  ex- 
hibitions of  his  works  will  remember  his  pleasing  portraits, 
his  "  Mercy's  Dream,"  "  Ichabod  Crane  and  Katrina  van 
Tassel,"  and  "The  Republican  Court."  The  line  of  por- 
traiture has  also  been  followed  by  Henry  Inman  and  Charles 
Elliot,  whose  likenesses  are  most  accurate,  expressive,  and 
finished  ;  as  well  as  by  William  Page,  with  his  rich  Venetian 
coloring;  and  Healy,  with  his  historical  and  literary  characters. 

In  genre  and  figure-painting  we  have  not,  as  yet,  produced 
many  notable  compositions,  except  by  the  American  artists 
resident  in  Italy  and  France,  among  whom  Chapman,  Free- 
man, and  Vedder,  are  our  best-known  representatives.  Chap- 
man's Campagna  scenes  and  Italian  studies  are  most  delight- 
ful pictures.  Eastman  Johnson,  of  New  York  ;  Boughton, 
who  has  lately  settled  in  England,  and  is  winning  laurels 
there ;  and  Peters  Gray,  who  has  returned  from  Florence,  are 
also  excellent  in  this  department. 

In  landscapes  we  possess  some  noble  works.  Church, 
with  his  "  Niagara,"  "  Cotopaxi,"  "  Chimborazo,"  "  Icebergs," 
"  Heart  of  the  Andes,"  and  "  Valley  of  Santa  Isabel ;  "  and 
Bierstadt,  with  his  Rocky  Mountain  and  California  scenery, 
may  challenge  comparison  with  the  artists  of  any  land.  Gif- 
ford  is  masterly  in  aerial  perspective  ;  Kensett,  whose  coloring 
is  lower  in  tone,  is  peculiarly  true  and  tender ;  Cole's  roman- 


PAINTING  IN   THE  NINETEENTH  CENT  UK  Y.    447 

tic  series  of  the  "Voyage  of  Life,"  "The  Cross  and  the 
World,"  and  "  The  Course  of  Empire,"  are  picture-poems ; 
while  the  names  of  Durand,  Cbleman,  Inness,  Tilton,  Yewell, 
Hart,  Casilear,  Weir,  Whittredge,  Richards,  Beard,  Sonntag, 
Gignoux,  McEntee,  and  Cropsey,  are  honorably  known,  not 
only  to  American  but  to  English  and  German  critics.  The 
marine  views  of  Dix,  Haseltine,  and  De  Haas,  are  also  ad- 
mired ;  and  Bradford's  "  Icebergs  "  and  Catlin's  Indian  pict- 
ures are  of  national  interest. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

SCHOOLS     OF     PAINTING. 

To  the  reader  interested  in  systematizing  his  knowledge 
of  art,  a  few  pages  in  review  of  our  whole  subject,  with  a 
classification  of  the  various  schools  of  painting,  will  be  both 
convenient  and  useful.  These  schools  well  illustrate  the  prog- 
ress of  culture  among  all  nations  and  in  all  provinces ;  the 
rise  and  decline  of  genius ;  the  tendency  of  different  centu- 
ries to  further  or  check  its  development ;  and  its  natural  laws 
of  growth  and  decay.  For  such  a  comprehensive  backward 
glance  it  will  likewise  be  necessary  to  remember  that  the  art 
of  every  period  of  the  world's  history  is  always  the  expression 
of  the  life,  thoughts,  and  general  aspirations  of  that  period  ; 
and  that  it  is  impossible  to  shape  it,  except  in  very  rare  and 
individual  instances,  in  any  other  direction.  We  perceive, 
for  example,  that  in  the  days  when  faith  and  tradition  domi- 
nated society,  they  also  dominated  art;  that  when  the  revival 
of  classical  literature  and  the  study  of  the  antique  wrought  its 
revolution  in  the  state,  in  the  universities,  in  religion,  and 
customs  and  manners,  it  set,  with  the  same  power,  its  impress 
upon  painting ;  that  when  freedom,  spirituality,  and  philoso- 
phy, degenerated  into  servility,  luxury,  and  carelessness,  art 
degenerated  with  them;  that  when  the  Reformation  pro- 


SCHOOLS  OF  PAINTING. 

449 

claimed  its  liberty,  and  asserted  the  sanctity  of  home  and  do- 
mestic life",  artists  also  sought  the  real  and  true,  often  to  the 
temporary  neglect  of  beauty  and  grace,  and  painted  the  Na- 
ture which  men  had  learned  to  love,  and  the  ordinary  scenes 
which  were  their  sphere  of  action.  Thus  we  see  that  every 
age,  every  climate,  and  every  country,  must  have  its  own 
voice,  and  can  speak  with  no  other.  Germany,  in  the  seven- 
teenth century,  could  no  more  have  produced  a  Ghirlandajo 
than  the  Florence  of  1450  could  have  given  birth  to  a  Rem- 
brandt. 

The  technical  phrase,  "  a  school  of  painting,"  is  first  ap- 
plied to  Byzantine  art,  when  established  at  Constantinople. 
The  names  of  those  primitive  painters  have  perished,  or  are 
at  best  but  empty  sounds  to  us,  but  the  characteristics  of  the 
Byzantine  school  itself  are  marked  and  familiar.  All  have 
seen  or  heard  of  its  grand,  colossal  mosaics ;  of  its  stiff,  con- 
ventional figures,  with  their  heavy,  gold-embroidered  dra- 
peries, their  monotonous  expression,  and  gilded  backgrounds ; 
of  its  black-faced,  gorgeously-appareled  Virgins ;  of  its  rigid, 
staring,  and  splendid  forms ;  of  its  dark,  emaciated,  and  re- 
pulsive saints,  and  its  blood-bathed  crucifixes.  We  have 
traced  its  course  through  the  East,  and  its  migration  into 
Italy ;  and  have  likewise  seen  how  the  opposing  spirit  of 
Italian  civilization  began  to  struggle  with  its  influence,  and 
finally  emancipated  itself  through  the  teachings  and  example 
of  Cimabue  and  Giotto.  These  records  carry  us  to  the  thir- 
teenth century,  when  we  find  the  political  and  social  divisions 
of  Italy  naturally  giving  rise  to  such  divisions  in  art  as  cre- 
ated rival  schools  of  painting,  which  took  their  names  from 
the  various  prominent  cities  where  artists  of  genius  lived  and 


45° 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


labored.  These  men  banded  themselves  into  "  guilds,"  as  a 
means  of  encouragement  and  support  in  their  profession ; 
while  the  cities  vied  with  each  other  in  ordering  large  and 
expensive  works  for  the  adornment  of  their  public  buildings 
and  cathedrals.  Thus  artists  became  a  recognized  and  im- 
portant class  in  the  community,  and  enjoyed  both  civil  and 
private  patronage. 

Sienna  has  the  honor  of  ranking  first  among  Italian  schools. 
Her  glory  was  not  permanent,  but  it  heralded  the  sunrise. 
In  her  churches  and  academy  we  may  study  the  dawn  of  na- 
tional art.  Guido  da  Siena's  "  Enthroned  Madonna  and 
Child,"  of  i22i,in  the  church  of  San  Domenico,  is  older  than 
Cimabue,  and  suggests  the  new  law  of  progress  more  fully 
developed  by  Duccio,  Cimabue's  contemporary,  and  by  Si- 
mone  Martini,  or  Memmi,  of  the  fourteenth  century.  These 
early  Siennese  impress  us  by  their  calmness  and  devotion,  their 
longing  after  purity  and  beauty,  and  their  native  and  simple 
grace.  Delicate  ornament  and  rich  color  replaced  for  them 
the- semi-barbarism  of  the  Byzantines;  but  their  style  had  so 
slight  a  foundation  of  strength  that  only  a  few  such  names  as 
Taddeo  and  Domenico  di  Bartolo  and  Matteo  da  Siena  de- 
serve to  be  catalogued  through  the  fifteenth  century,  at  whose 
close  the  art  of  Sienna  merged  into  that  of  Umbria,  with  one 
marked  exception  in  the  person  of  Gian  Antonio  Bazzi,  or 
Razzi  (Sodoma),  who  flourished  till  1549. 

The  school  of  Pisa  ran  an  even  briefer  career.  Its  renown 
was  only  founded  on  the  work  of  Nicola  Pisano,  the  great 
sculptor  of  1206,  whose  wonderful  pulpit  still  adorns  the  Pisan 
Baptistery ;  and  on  the  frescoes  of  its  Campo  Santo,  most  of 
which  were,  however,  executed  by  stranger-hands.  Its  own 


SCHOOLS  OF  PAINTING.  45! 

painters  have  sunk  into  deserved  oblivion.  But  these  little 
lights  enhance  by  contrast  the  brilliancy  of  the  Tuscan  or 
Florentine  school,  which,  rising  with  Cimabue,  renewed  its 
lustre  from  century  to  century  for  nearly  four  hundred  years. 
A  list  of  its  principal  artists  is  here  given  for  reference. 
When  critics  differ  as  to  dates,  the  authority  of  the  latest  in- 
vestigators, especially  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle,  or  Charles 
Blanc,  has  been  followed  in  these  tables  : 

Cimabue,  1240-1302. 

Giotto,  1276-1336,  and  his  followers,  Taddeo  Gaddi  and  Giottino. 

Andrea  Orcagna,  1329-about  1376. 

FraAngelico,  1387-1455. 

Masolino,  1383-1430. 

Andrea  Castagno,  1390-1457. 

Paolo  Uccello,  1396-1479. 

Masaccio,  1402-1429. 

Filippo  Lippi,  1412-1469. 

Benozzo  Gozzoli,  1424-1496. 

Cosimo  Roselli,  1439-1506. 

Andrea  Mantegna,  1431-1506. 

Piero  di  Cosimo,  1441-1521. 

Luca  Signorelli,  1441-1524. 

Sandro  Botticelli,  1447-1515. 

Domenico  Ghirlandajo,  1449-1494. 

Leonardo  da  Vinci,  1452-1519. 

Lorenzo  di  Credi,  1459-1537. 

Filippino  Lippi,  1460-1505. 

Fra  Bartolomeo,  about  1469-1517. 

Mariotto  Albertinelli,  1474-1515. 

Raffaellino  del  Garbo,  1476-1524. 

Michael  Angelo,  1474-1564. 

Andrea  del  Sarto,  1488-1530  or  1531. 

Angelo  Bronzino,  1502-1572. 

Daniele  da  Volterra,  1509-1566. 

Giorgio  Vasari,  1512-1574. 

Ludovico  Cardi  or  Cigoli, 

Cristoforo  Allori,  1577-1621. 

Carlo  Dolce,  1616-1686. 


452  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINT IXG. 

It  will  be  understood  that  this  and  all  other  lists  include 
only  noted  painters  ;  it  being  impossible  to  chronicle  every  ar- 
tist of  every  age  and  country.  Even  these  might  fall  into  sub- 
ordinate groups,  as  for  instance  the  group  of  the  Giotteschi,  or 
followers  of  Giotto ;  the  Idealists,  of  whom  Fra  Angelico  is 
the  purest  representative ;  and  the  Realists,  headed  by  Ma- 
saccio,  who  inaugurated  the  Renaissance  which  so  strikingly 
changed  the  style  of  painting,  as  well  as  of  architecture  and 
sculpture.  Andrea  Mantegna  has  been  classified  with  the 
Florentines,  because,  though  he  was  really  of  Padua,  and  the 
disciple  of  Squarcione,  the  school  of  Padua  was  so  limited  in 
extent,  and  so  quickly  absorbed  either  into  that  of  Florence 
or  that  of  Venice,  that  it  is  hardly  worth  while  to  assign  it  a 
separate  place.  So,  again,  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Tuscan  by 
birth  and  association,  removed  to  Milan,  and  founded  the 
Lombard  school,  which  may  be  arranged  in  this  succession  : 

Leonardo  da  Vinci,  1452-1519. 
Luini,  about  I46o-after  1530. 
Dosso  Dossi,  about  1479-1560. 
Gaudenzio  Ferrara,  1484-1549. 
Garofalo,  1481-1559. 
Correggio,  1494-1534. 
Parmagiano,  1503-1540. 
Caravaggio,  1569-1609. 

Here,  again,  occurs  another  apparent  discrepancy.  The 
student  of  art-history  would  at  first  thought  imagine  that  Ca- 
ravaggio should  rightly  belong  either  to  the  school  of  Rome 
or  of  Naples,  as  he  was  constantly  identified  with  those  cities. 
But  his  native  town  being  near  Milan,  and  his  education  from 
Northern  masters,  he  is  numbered  among  the  Lombards, 
though  he  takes  another  rank  as  the  foremost  of  the  Natu- 
ralisti. 


SCHOOLS  OF    PAINTING.  453 

The  establishment  of  the  Umbrian  school  links  itself  with 
the  traditions  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi,  and  with  the  deep  and 
fervent  piety  which  his  labors'  inspired  in  that  secluded  and 
romantic  district.  It  displays  a  strong  affection  for  the  beau- 
tiful and  the  mystical,  and  is  ideal  in  all  its  tendencies.  Ode- 
risio  of  Gubbio,  of  whom  Dante  speaks,  apparently  opens  its 
annals,  though  it  served  in  point  of  fact  but  as  a  feeder  to  the 
Roman  school,  in  which  it  soon  lost  itself.  Its  somewhat 
confused  documents  show  us — 

Oderisio  Gubbio,  of  the  thirteenth  century. 

Guido  Palmerucci,  1280. 

Ottaviano  Nelli,  about  1380. 

Gentile  da  Fabriano,  about  1370-1450. 

Nicolo  Alunno,  about  1430. 

Perugino,  1446-1524. 

Pinturricchio,  1454-1513. 

Giovanni  Santi,  about  1440-1496. 

The  Roman  school  may  be  said  to  have  been  almost  en- 
tirely composed  of  Raphael  and  his  pupils ;  for  though  Rome 
was  a  centre  of  study  for  all  artists,  comparatively  few  were 
born  within  its  precincts,  or  made  it  a  life-long  home.  But 
Raphael's  renown  is  all-sufficient  for  its  immortality.  We 
omit  his  insignificant  pupils  : 

Raphael,  1483-1520. 

Giulio  Romano,  1492-1546. 

Francesco  Penni,  1488-1528. 

Perino  del  Vaga,  1500-1547. 

Bagnacavallo,  1484-1542. 

Baroccio,  1528-1612. 

Taddeo  and  Federigo  Zuccaro,  1529-1566. 

Sassoferrato,  1605-1685. 

Carlo  Maratta,  1625-1 713. 

Pompe"o  Battoni,  1702-1787. 


454  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

Powerful  and  poetic  Venice,  so  magnificent  and  peculiar 
in  its  political  and  social  relations,  was  no  less  luxurious  and 
distinct  in  the  character  of  its  art.  The  development  of 
color  was  its  crowning  charm  ;  while  its  large  and  fascinating 
compositions  glow  with  brightness  and  joy.  Taine  remarks  : 
"  The  sensual  lustre  of  the  coloring  accords  with  superb  dec- 
orations, with  the  liberty  and  splendor  of  the  life,  with  the 
frank  energy  and  high-born  nobleness  of  the  heads,  with  the 
voluptuous  tints  of  the  living  flesh,  with  the  lively  and  easy 
movement  of  the  groups,  and  the  universal  diffusion  of  hap- 
piness." Its  long  line  of  painters  is  one  of  unusual  excellence ; 
but  many  of  the  early  dates  are  disputed  and  uncertain : 

The  Vivarini,  fifteenth  century. 

Jacopo  Bellini,  about  1400-1470. 

Gentile  Bellini,  1421-1507. 

Gian  Bellini,  1422-1516. 

Carlo  Crivelli,  between  1430  and  1440-1500. 

Carpaccio,  about  1455-1525. 

Cima  da  Conegliano,  about  1460-1518. 

Giorgione,  1477-1511. 

Titian,  1477-1576. 

Palma  Vecchio,  1480-1528. 

Pordenone,  1483-1539. 

Sebastian  del  Piombo,  1485-1547. 

Bonifazio,  1494-1563. 

Moretto,  1500-1560. 

Paris  Bordone,  1500-1571. 

Moroni,  1510-1578. 

Jacopo  Bassano,  1510-1592. 

Tintoretto,  1512-1594. 

Paul  Veronese,  1528-1588- 

Canale,  1697-1768. 

Canaletto,  1720-1780. 

The  endeavor  to  reanimate  the  declining  spirit  of  art,  and 
to  make  old  principles  once  more  available  by  uniting  them 


SCHOOLS  OF  PAINTING.  „* 

into  new  combinations,  was  the  aim  of  the  Eclectics,  or  school 
of  the  Carracci,  which  came  into  being  in  Bologna  at  the  close 
of  the  sixteenth  century.  They  taught  the  necessity  of  se- 
lecting and  imitating  the  greatest  merits  of  the  greatest  mas- 
ters, with  the  view  of  blending  them  into  one  perfect  whole. 
Their  leaders,  whom  we  note  below,  did  indeed  succeed  in 
rendering  themselves  famous,  though  we  instinctively  apply 
to  them  a  lower  standard  than  existed  in  the  days  of  Raphael 
and  Michael  Angelo  : 

Lodovico  Carracci,  1555-1619. 
Agostino  Carracci,  1558-1602. 
Annibale  Carracci,  1560-1609. 
Domenichino,  1581-1641. 
Guido  Reni,  1575-1642. 
Albani,  1578-1660. 
Guercino,  1590-1666. 
Lanfranco,  1581-1647. 

The  maxims  of  the  Eclectics  were  firmly  opposed  by  a 
band  of  determined  painters  known  as  the  Naturalisti.  They 
contended  that  Nature,  and  Nature  only,  should  be  copied, 
and  that  the  ideal  held  no  place  in  legitimate  art.  But  their 
uncultivated  and  limited  minds  were  attracted  only  to  the 
vulgar  and  gloomy  aspects  of  Nature ;  and  but  a  small  num- 
ber among  them  attained  to  any  eminence,  neither  have  their 
compositions  been  generally  valued  by  posterity.  Their  most 
celebrated  names  are — 

Caravaggio,  1569-1609. 
Ribera,  1588-1656. 
Salvator  Rosa,  1615-1673— 

who  are  also  spoken  of  as  the  "  Tenebrosi,"  from  their  par- 
tiality for  very  black  pictures  with  violently  dark  shadows 
30 


456  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

relieved  by  glittering  lights.  Salvator  Rosa  comes  familiarly 
before  us  as  the  most  striking  delineator  of  Italian  landscape. 
The  school  of  Naples,  which  is  the  least  brilliant  in  the  South, 
was  chiefly  made  up  of  quarrelsome  and  second-rate  artists, 
who,  by  forcibly  driving  off  all  competitors,  kept  the  patron- 
age of  the  city  for  themselves,  but  did  little  to  deserve  it. 
Salvator  Rosa,  Ribera  or  Lo  Spagnoletto,  and  Luca  Gior- 
dano, are  its  sole  representatives  worthy  of  remembrance. 

Having  thus  fixed  in  our  recollection  the  tolerably  well- 
defined  Italian  schools,  we  cross  the  Alps,  and  consider  the 
progress  of  painting  in  the  North. 

We  here  notice  that  the  early  Germans  preferred  archi- 
tecture to  painting.  Gothic  architecture  is  their  noblest 
legacy  to  art.  As  this  did  not,  like  the  Roman  and  Renais- 
sance churches,  require  decorations  in  fresco,  there  was  not 
the  same  sphere  for  the  exercise  of  painting ;  neither  was  the 
taste  for  the  intellectual  and  the  beautiful  so  quickly  un- 
folded in  such  ungenial  climate,  and  amid  rougher  and 
prosaic  customs.  We  consequently  find  them  adopting  quite 
a  different  style ;  concentrating  into  minuteness  of  finish,  on 
small  panels  or  canvas,  the  labor  which  Italians  spread  over 
extensive  wall-surfaces ;  or  expressing,  through  rude,  fantas- 
tic forms,  the  inherent  poetry  which  in  the  artists  of  Italy 
was  softened  into  grace  and  sentiment. 

To  an  Italian,  Thomas  of  Modena,  associated  with  Theo- 
doric  of  Prague,  seems  to  be  owing  much  of  the  short-lived 
success  of  the  ancient  school,  whose  fragmentary  remains 
are  discoverable  at  or  near  Prague.  He  was  called  to  Ger- 
many by  Charles  IV.  of  Bohemia,  who  was  ambitious  of  be- 
ing a  patron  of  painting ;  but  the  death  of  the  emperor  ter- 


SCHOOLS  OF  PAINTING.  457 

minated  all  such  projects,  and  his  followers  soon  dispersed. 
It  is  not  therefore  Bohemia,  but  the  cathedral  city  of  Cologne, 
overlooking  the  provinces  of  the  Rhine,  which  we  must  regard 
as  the  true  cradle  of  German  culture.  We  cannot,  indeed, 
satisfactorily  investigate  its  history.  Meister  Wilhelm  and 
Meister  Stephen,  renowned  at  Cologne  during  the  fourteenth 
century,  had  doubtless  predecessors,  whose  works,  like  them- 
selves, have  returned  to  dust ;  but  the  City  Museum  and  the 
pictures  removed  to  the  Munich  Pinakothek  unite  to  testify 
that  the  motives  of  early  German,  like  those  of  early  Italian 
art,  were  sacred  and  ideal.  Slender,  child-like  Madonnas, 
with  fair  flowing  hair,  and  gentle  though  feeble  saints,  were 
its  usual  subjects.  Greater  purity  of  color  exists  in  these  spe- 
cimens than  is  observable  in  the  first  efforts  of  the  Italians. 
This  primitive  school  educated  and  directed  the  taste  of  the 
Flemings,  whose  discovery  of  oil-painting  turned  the  eyes  of 
all  the  world  toward  the  artists  of  the  North. 

The  little  country  of  Flanders,  insignificant  as  it  seems 
in  size,  was  in  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  Centuries  the 
centre  of  Northern  civilization.  Its  commerce  brought  it 
into  communication  with  the  richest  lands  of  Europe,  and 
its  merchant-burghers  dispensed  their  wealth  like  princes. 
Citizens  and  court  combined  to  make  the  towns  of  Ghent 
and  Bruges  as  prominent  by  their  art-treasures  as  by  their 
trade  and  splendor.  Into  this  varied  life,  and  under  these 
varied  influences,  were  born  Hubert  and  Jan  van  Eyck,  the 
fathers  of  the  Flemish  school,  shining  out  in  full  lustre  from 
past  obscurity,  and  attaining  a  sudden  perfection  in  the 
grand  altar-piece  of  "  The  Adoration  of  the  Lamb,"  which, 
in  its  peculiar  line,  has  never  been  surpassed.  The  inven- 


458  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

tion,  or  practical  application,  of  oil-painting  by  these  brothers 
Van  Eyck  occasioned  a  revolution  in  technical  methods 
which  was  to  affect  all  subsequent  ages.  Their  successors 
were  distinguished  by  extreme  elaboration  and  truth  of  detail, 
delicacy  of  execution,  richness  of  ornament,  highly-finished 
accessories  of  ordinary  life,  realistic  figures,  and  landscape 
backgrounds.  The  later  Flemings,  headed  by  Rubens,  bloomed 
into  more  florid  style  and  color,  and  then  transferred  their 
powers  to  landscapes,  portraits,  and  genre  scenes,  thus  allying 
themselves  to  the  rising  school  of  Holland.  The  leading 
masters  of  the  Flemish  school  rank  in  the  following  order : 

Hubert  and  Jan  van  Eyck,  about  1366-1440. 

Roger  van  der  Weyden,  1400-1464. 

Hans  Memling,  1425-1495. 

Quintin  Matsys,  about  1460-1531. 

Matthew  and  Paul  Bril,  1554-1626. 

Peter  Breughel  and  sons,  1520-1625  or  1642. 

Rubens,  1577-1640. 

Frans  Snyders,  1579-1657. 

Vandyck,  1599-1641. 

Teniers,  1610-1694. 

In  Northern  and  Western  Germany  we  behold  a  less  rapid 
progress.  Flowers  of  culture  were  slow  to  blossom  in  that 
hard,  Teutonic  soil.  The  seed  borne  from  Cologne  to  remoter 
provinces  needed  time  for  growth.  German  art  is  most  inter- 
esting from  its  individuality,  its  intensity,  its  strength,  and 
fantasy ;  and  especially  from  its  singular  union  of  the  com- 
monest realities  with  the  wildest  poetry.  It  gives  us  in  Al- 
brecht  Dtirer  its  most  forcible  expression ;  but  we  find  the 
same  elements,  in  modified  forms,  in  all  periods  and  localities, 
even  till  our  own  day : 


SCHOOLS  OF  PAINTING.  ,Cft 

459 

Martin  Schongauer,  about  1420-1488. 

Michael  Wohlgemuth,  about  1434-1519. 

Albrecht  Diirer,  1471-1528. 

Hans  Holbein  the  Elder,  about  1459-1523. 

Hans  Holbein  the  Younger,  1494  or  1495-1543. 

Lucas  Cranach,  1472-1513. 

Balthasar  Denner,  1685-1749. 

Christian  Dietrich,  1712-1774. 

Raphael  Mengs,  1728-1779. 

Angelica  Kaufmann,  1742-1807. 

Cornelius,  1784-1867. 

Overbeck,  1789-1869. 

Kaulbach,  1805-1874. 

The  records  of  Holland  are  more  voluminous,  and  even 
more  significant.  The  era  of  the  Reformation  here  shows  its 
most  important  aesthetic  consequences.  Narrowing  for  a  sea- 
son the  sphere  of  painting,  it  exalted  the  attractions  of  truth 
and  the  beauties  of  Nature,  directed  the  attention  of  men  to 
the  virtues  and  vices  of  ordinary  life,  brought  out  either  the 
poetry  or  the  vulgarity  of  common  things,  and  did  its  work 
with  scrupulous  fidelity  and  the  utmost  patience  of  finish. 
From  strong  minds  like  Rembrandt's  it  produced  great  results ; 
while  limited  intellects  spent  their  labors  upon  artistic  "  mint 
and  anise  and  cummin,"  and  swelled  the  number  of  the 
"  little  masters  "  of  Holland.  The  list  below  is  classified 
in  respect  to  time,  and  not  to  merit ;  though  for  ease  of  refer- 
ence it  is  grouped  in  subdivisions  : 

Lucas  of  Leyden,  1494-1533. 
Rembrandt  van  Ryn,  1606-1669  or  1674. 
Ferdinand  Bol,  1611-1681. 
Govaert  Flinck,  1615-1660. 

Portra  it-Painters. 
Mierevelt,  1568-1641. 
Frank  Hals,  1584-1666. 
Bartholomew  van  der  Heist,  1612-1670. 


460  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

Genre  Painters. 

Gerard  Honthorst,  1592-1666. 
Gerard  Dow,  1613-1680. 
Gerard  Terburg,  1608-1681. 
Adrian  van  Ostade,  1610-1685. 
Gabriel  Metsu,  1615-1668  or  1659. 
Frans  Mieris,  1635-1681. 
Caspar  Netscher,  1636-1684. 
Adrian  van  der  Werff,  1659-1722. 

Landscape,  Marine,  and  Animal  Painters. 

Jan  van  Goyen,  1596-1656. 

Albert  Cuyp,  1606-1667. 

Jan  Wynants,  1610-1680. 

Jan  Both,  1610-1650. 

Jacob  Ruysdael,  about  1635-1681. 

Hobbema,  1635-1700. 

Van  der  Neer,  1619-1683. 

Berghem,  1624-1683. 

Wouvermans,  1620-1668. 

Paul  Potter,  1625-1654. 

Willem  van  de  Velde,  1633-1707. 

Backhuysen,  1631-1709. 

Interiors,  Architecture,  and  Still-Life. 

Van  Hooghe,  about  1635-1700. 
Van  der  Heyden,  1637-1712. 
Jan  Weenix,  1644-1719. 
David  de  Heem,  1600-1674. 
Willem  Kalf,  1630-1693. 

A  very  different  development  may  be  studied  in  Roman 
Catholic  Spain,  where  art  preeminently  followed  the  fortunes 
of  the  Church,  expanded  under  the  smile  of  the  Inquisition, 
and  died  with  the  downfall  of  faith.  Its  pictures  are  glowing, 
sombre,  or  aerial  in  tone  ;  fervid  and  intense  in  expression  ; 
passionately  ideal,  or  passionately  austere.  Among  its  host  of 
artists  may  be  chiefly  mentioned — 


SCHOOLS  OF  PAINTING.  46  r 

Luis  de  Vargas,  about  1502-1568. 

Juan  Joanes,  1523-1579. 

Alonso  Berruguete,  1480-1561. 

Morales,  1509-1586. 

Coello,  died  1590. 

Navarette,  1526-1579. 

Cespedes,  1538-1608. 

Juan  de  las  Roelas,  1558  or  1560-1625. 

Zurbaran,  1598-1662. 

Alonso  Cano,  1601-1667. 

The  two  Ribaltas,  1551-1628. 

Ribera,  1588-1656. 

Velasquez,  1599-1660. 

Murillo,  1617-1682. 

Valdes  Leal,  1630-1691. 

Francisco  Goya,  1746-1828. 

The  French  school,  so  highly  national  in  feeling  and  exe- 
cution, traces  its  distinct  and  progressive  succession  from  the 
age  of  Francis  I.  to  the  present  time.  The  same  quality  of 
sentiment,  the  same  tendency  to  exaggeration  and  theatrical 
effect,  and  yet  the  same  indefinable  grace  and  esprit,  are 
marked  throughout.  We  have  not  to  chronicle  its  decline, 
for  its  painters  of  the  nineteenth  century  share  with  the  Eng- 
lish the  widest  modern  celebrity.  In  enumerating  the  artists 
of  the  French  and  English  schools,  only  the  most  prominent 
are  mentioned,  while  all  still  living  are  omitted  : 

Jehan  Foucquet,  about  1415-1485. 
Jean  Cousin,  about  1501-1590. 
Francois  Clouet,  1500-1572. 
Simon  Vouet,  1590-1649. 
Jacques  Callot,  1592-1635. 
Poussin,  1594-1665. 
Claude  Lorraine,  1600-1682. 
Le  Sueur,  1617-1655. 
Charles  Le  Brun,  1619-1690. 
Mignard,  1610-1695. 


462  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

Rigaud,  1659-1743. 
Watteau,  1684-1721. 
Claude  Vernet,  1714-1789. 
Greuze,  1724-1805. 
David,  1748-1825. 
Gros,  1771-1835. 
Gerard  1770-1837. 
Prud'hon,  1760-1823. 
Elisabeth  Lebrun,  1755-1842. 
Isabey,  1767-1855. 
Granet,  1775-1849. 
Horace  Vernet,  178.7-1863. 
G<§ricault,  1791-1825. 
Leopold  Robert,  1794-1835. 
Ary  Scheffer,  1795-1858. 
Paul  Delaroche,  1797-1857. 
Eugene  Delacroix,  1799-1863. 

The  art  of  England  may  be  called  entirely  modern,  with 
all  the  vigor  of  youth,  and  the  brightness  of  ascending  fame. 
For  this  reason  it  is  to  many  more  interesting  than  any  study 
of  the  past;  while  its  subjects  also  adapt  themselves  to  pre- 
vailing tastes.  Its  special  excellence  lies  in  the  departments 
of  landscape,  portrait,  and  genre  painting.  A  selection  of  its 
most  meritorious  artists  is  attended  with  no  little  difficulty, 
but  the  names  affixed  can  be  added  to  at  pleasure  : 

William  Hogarth,  1697-1764. 
Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  1 723-1 792. 
Gainsborough,  1727-1788. 
Romney,  1734-1802. 
Benjamin  West,  1738-1820. 
Copley,  1737-1815. 
Barry,  1741-1806. 
Fuseli,  1741-1825. 
Northcote,  1746-1831. 
Stothard,  1755-1834. 
Blake,  1757-1828. 
Opie,  1761-1807. 


SCHOOLS  OP  PAINTING. 


463 


Morland,  1763-1804. 
Raeburn,  1756-1823. 
Lawrence,  1769-1830. 
Turner,  1775-1851. 
Constable,  1776-1837. 
Calcott,  1779-1844. 
Collins,  1788-1847. 
Wilkie,  1785-1841. 
Haydon,  1786-1846. 
Nasmyth,  1786-1831. 
Mulready,  1786-1863. 
Etty,  1787-1849. 
Eastlake,  1793-1865. 
Stanfield,  1793-1867. 
Leslie,  1794-1859. 
Roberts,  1796-1864. 
Landseer,  1802-1873. 
Maclise,  1811-1870. 

West,  Copley,  and  Charles  Leslie,  though  American  by 
birth,  have  been  included  in  the  preceding  catalogue,  as  their 
English  residence  and  acknowledged  talent  of  course  entitle 
them  to  an  eminent  place.  But  David  Cox  and  Samuel 
Prout  are  omitted,  as  the  consideration  of  water-color  paint- 
ing would  open  too  wide  a  field,  and  must,  together  with  the 
embryo  American  school,  be  left  for  the  coming  historians  of 
the  twentieth  century.  Meanwhile  let  us  hope  that  our  stand- 
ard of  art,  both  in  England  and  America,  may  rise  at  least 
as  high  as  our  standard  of  literature ;  that  noble  works  may 
grow  from  noble  sentiments;  that  the  painter's  hand  may 
interpret  upon  canvas,  not  only  the  harmony  and  beauty  of 
outside  Nature,  but  the  harmony  and  beauty  of  the  soul ;  and 
that  the  conflict  between  ideality  and  reality  may  be  recon- 
ciled, not  by  any  undue  exaltation  of  the  one  above  the 
other,  but  by  the  transformation  of  the  ideal  into  the  real. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

WORLD-PICTURES. 

UNDER  this  title  we  now  propose  to  consider  twelve  of  the 
most  celebrated  paintings  of  the  most  celebrated  artists ; 
so  familiarized  to  us  by  engravings,  and  so  dear  to  memory 
or  imagination,  that  the  thought  of  beholding  the  originals  is 
one  of  the  pleasantest  anticipations  of  the  traveler.  These 
are  Raphael's  "  Transfiguration  "  and  "  Sistine  Madonna ;  " 
Michael  Angelo's  "  Last  Judgment ;  "  Domenichino's  "  Last 
Communion  of  St.  Jerome ;  "  Volterra's  "  Descent  from  the 
Cross;  "  Leonardo  da  Vinci's  "  Last  Supper ;  "  Titian's  "  As- 
sumption of  the  Virgin  ;  "  Correggio's  "  Nativity,"  or  "  Santa 
Notte ;  "  Guido's  "  Aurora ;  "  Guide's  "  Portrait  of  Beatrice 
Cenci ; '  Murillo's  "  Immaculate  Conception  ;  "  and  Rubens's 
"  Descent  from  the  Cross."  They  shall  be  spoken  of  in  turn  ; 
specifying  where  each  is  to  be  found,  and  adding  descrip- 
tions of  each,  selected  from  standard  authors. 

The  Transfiguration,  called  the  finest  picture  in  the  world, 
was  Raphael's  last  composition.  It  had  been  ordered  by  Car- 
dinal Giulio  de  Medici  for  the  town  of  Narbonne,  France,  of 
which  he  was  archbishop.  But,  as  the  great  master  died  be- 
fore its  completion,  it  was  suspended  above  the  bed  on  which 
his  body  lay  in  state,  and  was  afterward  retained  in  Rome. 


WORLD-PICTURES.  $ 

It  is  now  the  chief  attraction  of  the  Picture  Gallery  of  the 
Vatican.  All  are  aware  that  it  represents  two  separate  inci- 
dents. The  actual  scene  of  the  transfiguration,  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  painting,  is  entirely  from  Raphael's  own  hand;  and 
as  it  is  the  marvelous  expression  of  the  face  of  Christ  which 
constitutes  its  peculiar  charm,  the  visitor  must  be  sure  of  get- 
ting near  enough  to  see  it,  which  is  not  always  easy.  The 
group  below  was  partly  executed  by  Raphael,  but  completed 
by  Giulio  Romano.  Charlotte  Eaton,  in  writing  of  Roman 
masterpieces,  gives  utterance  to  a  natural  feeling  when  she 
says :  "  It  is  somewhat  strange  to  see  the  whole  picture  of  the 
Transfiguration,  including  the  three  prostrate  apostles,  shad- 
ing their  dazzled  senses  from  the  insufferable  brightness,  oc- 
cupying only  a  small  part  of  the  top  of  the  canvas,  and  the 
principal  field  filled  with  a  totally  distinct  and  certainly  un- 
equaled  picture,  that  of  the  demoniac  boy  whom  our  Sav- 
iour cured  on  coming  down  from  the  mount." 

The  following  description  from  Kugler  explains  this  ar- 
rangement : 

"  This  picture  is  divided  into  two  parts,  the  undermost  of 
which,  on  account  of  its  mass,  is  the  more  important  and  pre- 
dominant. On  one  side  are  nine  of  the  disciples ;  on  the 
other  a  crowd  of  people  pressing  toward  them,  bearing  along 
a  boy  possessed  with  a  devil.  His  limbs  are  fearfully  con- 
vulsed by  demoniac  power ;  he  is  supported  by  his  father, 
who  appears  strenuously  to  implore  assistance  by  words  and 
looks  :  two  kneeling  women  beside  him  point  to  the  sufferer, 
the  one  with  earnest  entreaties ;  the  other,  in  front,  with  an 
expression  of  passionate  energy.  All  are  crying  aloud,  be- 
seeching, and  stretching  out  their  arms  for  aid.  Among  the 


466  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS   OF  PAINTING. 

disciples,  who  are  disposed  in  different  groups,  astonishment, 
horror,  and  sympathy,  alternate  in  various  degrees.  One, 
whose  youthful  countenance  expresses  the  deepest  sympathy, 
turns  to  the  unhappy  father,  plainly  intimating  his  inability 
to  assist  him ;  another  points  upward ;  a  third  repeats  this 
gesture.  The  upper  part  of  the  picture  is  formed  by  an  ele- 
vation to  represent  Mount  Tabor.  There  lie  prostrate  the 
three  disciples  who  went  up  with  Christ,  dazzled  by  the  di- 
vine light ;  above  them,  surrounded  by  a  miraculous  glory, 
the  Saviour  floats  in  air,  in  serene  beatitude,  accompanied  by 
Moses  and  Elias.  The  twofold  action  contained  in  this 
picture,  to  which  shallow  critics  have  taken  exception,  is  ex- 
plained historically  and  satisfactorily  merely  by  the  fact  that 
the  incident  of  the  possessed  boy  occurred  in  the  absence  of 
Christ ;  but  it  explains  itself  in  a  still  higher  sense,  when  we 
consider  the  deeper,  universal  meaning  of  the  picture.  For 
this  purpose  it  is  not  even  necessary  to  consult  the  books  of 
the  New  Testament  for  the  explanation  of  the  particular  in- 
cidents ;  the  lower  portion  represents  the  calamities  and  mis- 
eries of  human  life — the  rule  of  demoniac  power,  the  weak- 
ness even  of  the  faithful  when  unassisted — and  points  to  a 
superior  Power.  Above,  in  the  brightness  of  divine  bliss, 
undisturbed  by  the  suffering  of  the  lower  world,  we  behold 
the  source  of  consolation  and  redemption  from  evil.  Even 
the  judicious  liberties  dictated  by  the  nature  of  the  art,  which 
displease  the  confined  views  of  many  critics,  such  as  the  want 
of  elevation  in  the  mountain,  the  perspective  alteration  of  the 
horizon  and  points  of  sight  for  the  upper  group  (in  which  the 
figures  do  not  appear  foreshortened,  as  seen  from  beneath, 
but  perfectly  developed,  as  if  in  a  vision),  give  occasion  for 
new  and  peculiar  beauties." 


WORLD-PICTURES.  467 

The  two  small  devotees,  kneeling  in  the  background  upon 
the  mountain,  are  portraits  of  the  father  and  uncle  of  Cardi- 
nal de  Medici,  for  whom  the  painting  was  first  intended.  A 
mosaic  copy  of  "  The  Transfiguration  "  hangs  in  the  transept 
of  St.  Peter's  Church,  Rome. 

The  Sistine  Madonna  was  originally  painted  by  Raphael  as 
an  altar-piece  for  the  cloister  of  San  Sisto,  in  Piacenza,  Italy. 
There  it  remained  till  1753,  when  it  was  purchased  by  King 
Augustus  III.  of  Saxony,  for  forty  thousand  Roman  scudi 
(between  forty  and  fifty  thousand  dollars  of  our  money),  and 
removed  to  Dresden,  whose  gallery  it  still  adorns.  "  In  justice 
to  its  own  merits,  and  in  kindness  to  the  other  pictures  in  the 
gallery,  the  Sistine  Madonna  has  a  room  entirely  to  itself." 
Liibke  says  of  it : 

"  Who  does  not  know  this  wondrous  figure,  which,  veiled 
by  magnificent  drapery,  floats  on  the  clouds  like  a  heavenly  ap- 
parition, surrounded  by  a  glory  of  lovely  angel-heads  ?  A  veil 
flows  down  from  her  head,  which  seems  as  if  lost  in  thought, 
reflecting  on  the  divine  mystery  which  her  arms  embrace 
with  maternal  fervor;  for,  enthroned  in  her  arms,  in  calm 
majesty,  is  a  boy,  in  whose  childlike  features  is  stamped  the 
sublimity  of  his  mission,  and  whose  eyes,  with  their  power 
and  depth,  allow  us  to  forebode  his  vocation  as  Redeemer  of 
the  world.  Pope  Sixtus  is  looking  up  with  reverence,  forming 
by  his  grand,  dignified  appearance  a  splendid  contrast  to  St. 
Barbara,  who,  opposite  to  him,  bows  her  graceful  head  with 
humble  gesture,  and  casts  her  eye  downward  at  the  majesty 
before  her.  Lastly,  the  groundwork  is  finished  by  two  en- 
chanting boy-angels,  resting  on  the  lower  breastwork.  It  is 


468  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

as  if  Raphael  had  wished  to  combine  in  this  incomparable 
creation  his  deepest  thoughts,  his  most  sublime  ideas,  and  his 
most  perfect  beauty,  that  it  might  be  and  might  remain  the 
highest  production  of  all  religious  art.  His  Madonnas,  and 
the  Sistine  Madonna  especially,  are  not  created  for  any  defi- 
nite epoch,  or  for  any  special  religious  views ;  they  live  for 
all  times  and  for  all  nations,  because  they  reveal  an  eternal 
truth  in  a  form  eternally  acceptable." 

Viardot  also  remarks  :  "  We  should  be  mistaken  if  we 
were  to  seek  in  it  a  simple  Madonna,  a  representation  of  the 
Mother  of  our  Lord,  such  as  the  artist  imagined  her  and 
offered  to  the  piety  and  admiration  of  men.  There  is  more 
here  ;  it  is  like  a  revelation  of  heaven  to  earth  ;  it  is  an  ap- 
pearance of  the  Virgin.  This  word  explains  the  whole  ren- 
dering of  the  picture  :  the  green  curtains  drawn  aside  in  the 
upper  part,  the  balustrade  at  the  bottom,  on  which  the  two 
little  angels  lean,  who  seem,  by  their  upturned  glance,  to 
point  to  the  celestial  vision  ;  and  St.  Sixtus  and  St.  Barbara, 
kneeling  on  either  side  of  the  Virgin,  like  Moses  and  Elias 
on  Mount  Tabor  at  the  transfiguration.  We  must  also  no- 
tice that  the  two  angels  at  the  bottom,  whose  presence  few 
people  understand,  give  a  third  plane  to  the  picture,  or,  as 
the  Italians  say,  three  orizonti,  first  these  angels,  then  St.  Six- 
tus and  St.  Barbara,  and,  lastly,  the  Madonna  and  Child,  who 
are  thus  placed  at  a  greater  distance. 

"When  we  understand  this,  we  can  appreciate  all  the 
merits  of  this  composition.  What  symmetry  and  variety  are 
to  be  found  in  it !  What  noble  attitudes,  in  what  wonder- 
fully graceful  positions  are  the  Virgin  and  Child  in  her  arms, 
and  also  the  two  saints  in  adoration !  And  what  ineffable 


WORLD-PICTURES. 


469 


beauty  there  is  in  every  thing  that  composes  the  group,  old 
man,  Child,  and  women !  What  could  be  more  thoughtful, 
pious,  and  holy,  than  the  venerable  head  of  Sixtus  I., 
crowned  by  the  glory  of  the  saints,  the  thin  golden  circle  of 
which  shines  brightly  on  the  pale-blue  background  composed 
of  innumerable  faces  of  cherubim  ?  What  could  be  more 
noble,  more  tender,  and  more  graceful,  than  the  holy  martyr 
Barbara,  of  Nicomedia,  who  unites  every  kind  of  beauty, 
even  that  creamy  complexion  so  celebrated  by  the  old  fathers 
of  the  primitive  Church  ?  What  could  be  more  astonishing, 
more  superhuman,  than  that  Child  with  the  meditative  fore- 
head, with  the  serious  mouth,  with  the  fixed  and  penetrating 
eye,  that  Child  who  will  become  the  wrathful  Christ  of  Mi- 
chael Angelo  ?  And  is  not  Mary  really  a  radiant  and  celestial 
being  ?  is  she  not  an  apparition  ?  What  eye  could  gaze  on 
her  without  falling  ?  None,  I  am  convinced,  even  of  the  most 
ignorant  or  incredulous.  And  what  strikes  us  even  more 
than  the  look,  what  moves  even  the  depths  of  our  hearts,  is 
not  a  skillful  combination  of  light  and  shadow,  a  prepared 
effect  of  chiaro-oscuro,  imitating  the  light  of  everlasting  day; 
it  is  the  irresistible  power  of  moral  beauty  which  beams  in  the 
face  of  the  Virgin  mother,  whose  veil  is  lightly  thrown  aside 
as  if  by  the  breeze ;  it  is  her  deep  glance,  her  noble  forehead, 
her  look,  at  once  grave,  modest,  and  sweet ;  it  is  that  indefi- 
nable look  of  something  primitive  and  wild,  which  marks  the 
woman  brought  up  far  from  the  world,  out  of  the  world,  and 
having  never  known  its  pomps  or  deceitful  gayeties." 

The  Last  Judgment,  a  fresco  by  Michael  Angelo,  over  the 
altar  of  the  Sistine  Chapel,  Rome,  filling  a  space  of  sixty  feet 
high  and  thirty  broad,  is  thus  pictured  by  Grimm  : 


470 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


"  The  '  Last  Judgment,'  when  we  first  look  at  it,  appears 
like  an  endless  throng,  like  a  stormy  sky,  with  clouds  shifting 
together,  gathering  restlessly  and  unequally  from  all  sides. 
The  composition  only  slowly  arranges  itself  before  us.  We 
learn  how  to  follow  and  apprehend  the  multitudinous  train. 
We  see  the  angry  frown  of  Christ  as  the  upper  centre  of  the 
painting,  and  around  him,  as  a  broad  cloudy  halo  encom- 
passes the  shining  moon,  we  see  clouds  of  countless  forms ; 
and  around  these  other  multitudes,  like  a  second  broader 
ring,  which  below,  however,  instead  of  closing,  makes  a  curve 
and  again  turns  outward,  meeting  thus  the  lower  edge  of  the 
painting,  whence  on  both  sides  the  train  of  figures  rises  into 
the  air. 

"  For  the  idea  of  the  composition  is  this  :  The  whole  wall 
is  regarded  as  the  infinite  open  space  of  heaven,  into  which 
we  are  looking.  Christ  forms  the  centre,  with  Mary,  who  is 
sitting  clinging  to  his  knee,  and  from  this  centre  beaming 
rays  emanate  on  all  sides.  An  immense  circle  of  saints,  each 
with  the  insignia  of  his  dignity  in  his  hand,  surround  him  as 
the  chief  in  heaven.  Below  this  circle,  Christ's  footstool,  as 
it  were,  is  the  angel  of  judgment,  with  trumpets  directed  into 
the  depths  below,  and  from  these  depths  on  the  left  side  arise 
those  awakened  from  the  dead,  while  on  the  right  the  con- 
demned are  striving  upward  and  are  thrust  down  by  strug- 
gling angels  and  devils — right  and  left  as  regards  the  spec- 
tator— so  that  as  seen  from  the  picture,  the  condemned, 
as  they  ought,  come  on  the  left  side.  Quite  above,  however, 
high  above  the  circle  of  the  elect,  are  the  blessed  with  the 
instruments  of  the  death  and  sufferings  of  Christ,  which  they 
bear,  hovering  about  in  triumph.  Such  are  the  contents  of 


WORLD-PICTURES.  47, 

the  painting,  which  not  only  differs  fiom  the  earlier  represen- 
tations of  the  last  judgment,  but  also,  as  regards  the  artistic 
work,  is  such  an  astonishing  production  that  nothing  which 
has  been  executed  by  any  painter,  before  or  after,  can  be 
compared  with  it.  ... 

"  The  wall  is  half  as  high  again  as  it  is  broad.  Hence 
the  necessity  of  a  higher  and  lower  centre.  The  judging 
God  rules  the  upper  half;  the  troop  of  angels  sounding  to 
the  judgment,  the  lower.  Both  centres  are,  however,  so  well 
united  that  not  a  figure  could  be  found  which  may  appear 
superfluous  or  unnecessary  to  the  whole  train.  The  unity  of 
the  picture,  and  at  the  same  time  the  separateness  of  the  dif- 
ferent groups,  is  marvelous.  The  angels  strike  the  trumpets 
as  if  the  whole  world  must  quake  at  the  sound,  and,  as  St. 
Matthew  says,  as  if  all  the  tribes  of  the  earth  must  mourn. 
Unceasingly,  while  they  blow,  men  awake  to  be  judged — skel- 
etons, bodies  still  veiled  with  palls,  naked  figures  rising,  some 
still  half  in  the  ground,  from  the  holes  of  which  they  crawl, 
others  already  so  far  advanced  that,  kneeling  and  supporting 
themselves  with  their  arms,  they  attempt  to  stand  until  they 
begin  to  soar ;  and  the  higher,  the  lighter  grows  the  move- 
ment, up  to  the  highest  of  those  who,  completely  freed  from 
the  sleep  of  centuries,  fly  toward  the  great  circle  which  in. 
wide  circumference  joins  the  first  circle,  surrounding  the  form 
of  Christ. 

"  In  the  contrast  of  these  rising  figures  to  the  ruined  ones 
on  the  other  side  of  the  painting,  Michael  Angelo  has  dis- 
played his  greatest  art.  It  is  as  if  we  saw  masses  of  clouds 
covering  the  sky,  and  gigantic  figures  suddenly  climbing  up- 
them  ;  and  opposite,  on  the  other  side,  as  if  leaden,  devilish. 


472 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING, 


powers  hung  to  those  pressing  upward  to  the  same  light,  and 
drew  them  down  into  the  abyss.  We  see  it  not,  but  an  end- 
less profundity  seems  to  open,  over  which  they  desperately 
contend  to  the  utmost.  This  contest  between  the  condemned 
and  the  devil  is  world-famed.  Things  are  represented  here 
which  are  not  to  be  described.  And  equally  awfully  below, 
we  see  Charon  emptying  his  crowded  boat.  As  if  he  were 
emptying  a  sack  of  mice,  he  makes  the  crowds  of  the  guilty 
spring  down  into  the  flames  and  smoke.  He  is  standing  on 
the  edge  of  the  vessel.  With  his  foot  upon  the  fore  part,  he 
brings  it  to  the  brink,  and  with  uplifted  oar  he  strikes  among 
the  throng  who  are  seeking  to  cling  to  it,  and  tremble  at  the 
leap  into  the  abyss.  Dante  describes  how  Charon  drives 
them  to  the  boat :  we  have  here  the  continuance  of  his  poem, 
the  arrival.  They  excite  still  greater  pity  than  those  wres- 
tling with  the  devils  in  the  air  above.  For  above  the  decision 
is  yet  delayed — a  possibility  of  disengaging  themselves  re- 
mains— here,  however,  all  is  lost !  " 

The  Last  Communion  of  St.  Jerome,  in  the  Picture  Gal- 
lery of  the  Vatican,  is  the  work  of  Domenico  Zampieri,  known 
as  Domenichino.  For  this  magnificent  painting,  executed 
early  in  the  seventeenth  century,  for  the  monks  of  Ara  Cceli, 
Rome,  the  artist  only  received  about  ten  guineas.  It  is  now 
of  priceless  value.  Mrs.  Jameson  thus  describes  it : 

"  The  last  communion  of  St.  Jerome  is  the  subject  of  one 
of  the  most  celebrated  paintings  in  the  world — the  St.  Jerome 
of  Domenichino — which  has  been  thought  worthy  of  being 
placed  opposite  to  '  The  Transfiguration  '  of  Raphael  in  the 
Tatican.  The  aged  saint — feeble,  emaciated,  dying — is  borne 


WORLD-PICTURES.  ,,, 

473 

in  the  arms  of  his  disciples  to  the  chapel  of  his  monastery,  and 
placed  within  the  porch.  A  young  priest  sustains  him ;  St. 
Paula,  kneeling,  kisses  one  of  his  thin,  bony  hands  ;  the  saint 
fixes  his  eager  eye  on  the  countenance  of  the  priest,  who  is 
about  to  administer  the  sacrament — a  noble,  dignified  figure, 
in  a  rich  ecclesiastical  dress ;  a  deacon  holds  the  cup,  and  an 
attendant  priest  the  book  and  taper;  the  lion  droops  his 
head  with  an  expression  of  grief ;  the  eyes  and  attention  of 
all  are  on  the  dying  saint,  while  four  angels,  hovering  above, 
look  down  upon  the  scene." 

Lord  Lindsay  adds  the  tradition  which  gave  rise  to  the 
painting : 

"  And  Jerome's  death  drawing  near,  he  commanded  that 
he  should  be  laid  on  the  bare  ground,  and  covered  with  sack- 
cloth ;  and,  calling  the  brethren  around  him,  he  spake  sweetly 
to  them,  and  exhorted  them  in  many  holy  words,  and  ap- 
pointed Eusebius  to  be  their  abbot  in  his  room.  And  then 
with  tears  he  received  the  blessed  eucharist,  and,  sinking 
backward  again  on  the  earth,  his  hands  crossed  on  his  heart, 
he  sang  the  '  Nunc  Dimittis,'  which  being  finished,  it  being 
the  hour  of  compline,  suddenly  a  great  light,  as  of  the  noon- 
day sun,  shone  round  about  him,  within  which  light  angels 
innumerable  were  seen  by  the  by-standers  in  shifting  motion, 
like  sparks  among  the  dry  reeds.  And  the  voice  of  the 
Saviour  was  heard,  inviting  him  to  heaven,  and  the  holy  doc- 
tor answered  that  he  was  ready.  And  after  an  hour  that 
light  departed,  and  Jerome's  spirit  with  it." 

The  Descent  from  the  Cross,  by  Daniele  Ricciarelli,  or 
Daniele  da  Volterra,  in  the  church  of  San  Trinita  de  Monti, 


474 


SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 


at  the  head  of  the  Spanish  Staircase,  Rome,  is  another  mas- 
terpiece of  art.  Nicolas  Poussin  ranked  it  as  the  third  great 
altar-piece  ever  painted.  The  visitor,  however,  usually  sees 
an  oil  copy,  and  not  the  original  fresco,  which  was  some  time 
since  taken  from  the  wall,  and  is  so  injured  that  it  was  re- 
moved into  the  sacristy  of  the  church.  Lanzi,  the  Italian, 
says  of  it : 

"  We  might  almost  fancy  ourselves  spectators  of  the  mourn- 
ful scene ;  the  Redeemer,  while  being  removed  from  the 
cross,  gradually  sinking  down,  with  all  that  relaxation  of  limb 
and  utter  helplessness  which  belongs  to  a  dead  body ;  the 
assistants  engaged  in  their  various  duties,  and  thrown  into 
different  and  contrasted  attitudes,  intently  occupied  with  the 
sacred  remains  which  they  so  reverently  gaze  upon ;  the 
Mother  of  the  Lord  in  a  swoon  amid  her  afflicted  companions ; 
the  disciple  whom  he  loved  standing,  with  outstretched  arms, 
absorbed  in  contemplating  the  mysterious  spectacle.  The 
truth  in  the  representation  of  the  exposed  parts  of  the  body 
appears  to  be  Nature  itself.  The  coloring  of  the  heads  and 
of  the  whole  picture  accords  precisely  with  the  subject,  dis- 
playing strength  rather  than  delicacy,  a  harmony,  and,  in 
short,  a  degree  of  skill,  of  which  Michael  Angelo  himself 
might  have  been  proud,  if  the  picture  had  been  inscribed  with 
his  name." 

Hare  also  mentions  the  remarks  of  Lady  Eastlake  :  "  Da- 
niele  da  Volterra's  '  Descent  from  the  Cross  '  has  very  grand 
features.  The  body  is  not  skillfully  sustained ;  nevertheless, 
the  number  of  strong  men  employed  about  it  makes  up  in 
sheer  muscle  for  the  absence  of  skill.  There  are  four  ladders 
against  the  cross,  stalwart  figures  standing,  ascending  and  de- 


WORLD-PICTURES. 


475 


scending  upon  each,  so  that  the  space  between  the  cross  and 
the  ground  is  absolutely  alive  with  magnificent  lines.  The 
Virgin  lies  on  one  side,  and  is  like  a  grand  creature  struck 
down  by  a  sudden  death-blow.  She  has  fallen,  like  Ananias, 
in  Raphael's  cartoon,  with  her  head  bent  backward,  and  her 
arm  under  her.  The  crown  of  thorns  has  been  taken  from 
the  dead  brow,  and  rests  on  the  end  of  one  of  the  ladders." 

The  Last  Supper^  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  is  a  fresco,  with 
figures  larger  than  life,  painted  on  the  wall  of  the  refectory 
of  the  old  convent  of  Santa  Maria  della  Grazie,  Milan.  It  is 
done  in  oil,  instead  of  the  customary  distemper,  and  has  suf- 
fered so  terribly  from  time  and  bad  treatment  that  it  is  liter- 
ally falling  to  pieces.  In  addition  to  the  ruin  of  dampness 
and  decay,  a  door  was  cut  through  the  lower  part  of  it  in  the 
seventeenth  century  to  enlarge  the  entrance  to  the  refectory ; 
and  during  the  French  and  Italian  wars  the  apartment  was 
used  as  a  barrack,  and  defaced  by  soldiery  and  horses.  Many 
of  its  far-famed  beauties  must  therefore  be  supplied  by  the 
imagination.  Numberless  copies,  in  ever)'  size,  have  been 
taken  from  it,  none  of  which  more  faithfully  renders  the  ex- 
pressions of  the  original  than  Raphael  Morghen's  splendid 
engraving. 

Many  authors  have  immortalized  the  merits  of  this  pict- 
ure, but  I  here  quote  from  the  lengthy  and  graphic  account 
of  J.  J.  Jarves : 

"  The  '  large  upper  room,'  its  simple  decorations,  the  dis- 
tant view  from  the  windows  over  the  hills  of  Judea,  and  the 
sparse  accessories  of  such  a  banquet,  are  in  strict  accordance 
with  our  usual  interpretation  of  the  Gospel  narrative. 


476  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

"  Here  Jesus  and  the  twelve  are  alone.     Leonardo  does 
not  admit  even  a  single  attendant.      They  are  seated  at  a 
plain  table  on  which  is  spread  a  light  repast.    A  few  cups  and 
dishes  on  a  linen  cloth,  slightly  ornamented  for  artistic  value, 
scattered  carelessly  about,  as  if  the  modest  feast  were  well- 
nigh  done,  are  his  only  accessories.     His  draperies  are  nobly 
disposed,  and  in  accordance  with  the  supposed  customs  of 
the  age.      The  heads  are  ideal  embodiments  of  the  several 
characteristics  of  the  apostles.     Jesus  is  the  central  figure. 
His  prophetic  exclamation,  '  One  of  you  shall  betray  me,'  has 
filled  the  company  with  impassioned  excitement.     They  turn 
to  each  other  and  the  Saviour,  alternating  between  horror, 
suspicion,  doubt,  and  astonishment,  eagerly  questioning  as  to 
whom  it  applies.     Some  are  stunned  by  the  enormity  of  the 
charge;  others  are  vociferous,  indulging  in  violent  gestures 
and  powerful  emotions :  each  betrays  his  appropriate  tem- 
perament in  corresponding  speech  and  action,  with  a  wonder- 
fully varied  rendering  of  individual  character.    Yet  a  masterly 
unity  of  feeling  pervades  the  whole.    The  interest  of  the  scene 
is  regularly  heightened  through  all  the  gradations  of  vehement 
passion  and  deep  sorrow  until  it  centres  upon  the  group  of 
the  Saviour,  meekly  obedient  to  foreordained  destiny,  and 
the  tender  John,  overwhelmed  by  its  sudden  proximity,  his 
sympathetic,  loving  anguish  and  saintly  features  contrasting 
with  the  avaricious,  hypocritical  countenance  of  the  betrayer. 
Judas  sits  next  to  John.     A  convulsive  start  has  caused  him 
unconsciously  to  overturn  the  ill-omened  salt.     His  mean 
profile  and  sinister   gaze  are   turned   inquiringly  upon    his 
Master,  watching  for  further  indications  of  discovery,  while 
his  left  hand  involuntarily  approaches  the  dish  near  to  the 


WORLD-PICTURES. 

477 

right  hand  of  Jesus,  who  is  about  to  betray  him  by  those 
memorable  words,  in  answer  to  the  earnest  inquiry  of  all  the 
others,  '  It  is  one  that  dippeth  with  me  in  the  dish.' 

"  The  lineaments  of  that  unparalleled  head  of  Christ  have 
become  as  familiar  to  the  world  as  if  he  still  walked  in  our 
midst.  Judged  by  the  strictest  rules  of  composition,  it  is  the 
most  successful  effort  of  Christian  art.  It  does  not  glow  with 
the  supernal  element  of  the  pietists.  But  it  is  the  result  of 
profound  thought  and  acute  observation ;  nature  and  history, 
prompted  by  imagination,  supplying  the  models  and  motives." 

The  Assumption  of  the  Virgin,  by  Titian,  stands  in  the 
Academy  of  the  Fine  Arts  at  Venice,  in  a  room  named,  in 
its  honor,  the  "  Hall  of  the  Assumption."  It  is  Titian's  best 
sacred  composition,  and  is  especially  noticeable,  not  only  for 
its  gorgeous  coloring,  but  for  the  marvelously  lovely  and  in- 
spired features  of  the  mature  Virgin. 

Mrs.  Heaton  tells  us :  "  The  magnificent  picture  of  the 
'Assumption  of  the  Virgin,'  now  in  the  Academy  at  Venice, 
was  painted  by  Titian,  in  1516,  for  an  altar-piece  in  the 
church  of  Santa  Maria  de  Frari,  and  exhibits  the  full  grand- 
eur of  his  developed  style.  The  brothers  of  Santa  Maria,  it 
is  said,  were  at  first  somewhat  scandalized  by  the  bold  beauty 
and  life  of  their  altar-piece,  used  as  they  had  been  to  the 
calm  conventionalities  of  religious  art ;  but  they  decided  to 
keep  their  picture  when  they  were  offered  a  much  larger  sum 
than  they  had  given  for  it,  by  one  of  the  ministers  of  Charles 
V.  The  powerful  figure  of  the  Virgin  is  caught  up,  as  it 
were,  into  the  sky,  where  an  angel,  directed  by  the  Father, 
waits  to  place  the  crown  upon  her  head.  Charming  groups 


478  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

of  youthful  boy-angels  surround  her,  while  below  the  amazed 
apostles,  who  watch  her  upward  flight,  exhibit  the  most 
varied  emotions  and  longings." 

Liibke  also  remarks  :  "  Surrounded  by  a  charming  group 
of  jubilant  angels,  the  grand  figure  of  the  Madonna  solemnly 
rises  upward.  A  wondrous  ray  of  glory  bursts  from  her 
divine  countenance,  which  beams  with  the  light  of  heaven, 
for  above  her  appears  God  the  Father,  with  extended  arms, 
on  a  glory  of  angels;  below,  full  of  passionate  longing,  are 
the  apostles  whom  she  has  left  behind  on  earth,  and  who 
feel  themselves  impelled  to  follow  the  glorified  one.  All  this 
is  portrayed  freely  and  boldly  in  grand  touches,  and  in 
splendid  coloring,  and  only  the  somewhat  confused  and  too 
stormy  group  of  the  apostles  exhibits  a  trace  of  violent 
delineation." 

Mrs.  Jameson  adds :  "  The  noble  figure  of  the  Virgin,  in 
a  flood  of  golden  light,  is  borne,  or  rather  impelled,  upward 
with  such  rapidity  that  her  veil  and  drapery  are  disturbed  by 
the  motion.  Her  feet  are  uncovered,  a  circumstance  inad- 
missible in  ancient  art,  and  her  drapery,  instead  of  being 
white,  is  of  the  usual  blue  and  crimson,  her  appropriate 
colors  in  life.  Her  attitude,  with  outspread  arms — her  face, 
not  indeed  a  young  or  lovely  face,  but  something  far  better, 
sublime  and  powerful  in  the  expression  of  rapture  —  the 
divinely  beautiful  and  childish,  yet  devout,  unearthly  little 
angels  round  her — the  grand  apostles  below — and  the  splen- 
dor of  color  over  all — render  this  picture  an  enchantment 
at  once  to  the  senses  and  the  imagination." 

The  Nativity,  or  Santa  Notte,  of  Correggio,  is  one  of  the 


WORLD.PICTURES.  ,,ft 

479 

gems  of  the  Dresden  Gallery.  Its  distinguishing  beauty  is 
the  illumination  of  the  entire  scene  by  the  light  streaming 
from  the  celestial  Child.  Raphael  Mengs,  the  German  art- 
critic,  wrote  of  it  in  the  last  century  : 

"  This  work,  done  by  Correggio  for  Alberto  Pratonieri, 
and  finished  in  1527,  is  one  of  those  paintings  which  move 
the  heart  of  him  who  views  them,  whether  he  be  intelligent  or 
ignorant.  Its  composition  is  simple,  but  hides  the  most  sin- 
gular art  by  showing,  in  a  very  small  space,  a  field  sufficiently 
great,  with  a  distance  that  appears  truly  as  if  one  saw  a  mel- 
ancholy and  miserable  place,  but  ornamented  with  an  hori- 
zon where  the  dawn  of  the  day  enlivens  all  the  rest.  In  the 
background  are  some  shepherds,  which  one  scarcely  distin- 
guishes, and  among  them  and  the  Madonna  is  St.  Joseph  in 
the  act  of  leading  the  ass,  whose  figure  enlarges  the  place, 
showing  the  distance  there  is  between  that  and  the  Virgin, 
and  of  the  other  parts,  even  to  the  shepherds.  It  appears  at 
first  sight  that  the  situation  of  the  Virgin  might  have  been 
better  studied,  because  her  head  is  inclined  toward  the  Child 
in  a  manner  that  one  cannot  see  all  the  face  ;  but  Correggio 
inclined  that  head  in  order  that  the  light  which  comes  from 
below  should  not  produce  a  shade  in  the  parts  above,  which 
would  have  injured  the  beauty  of  the  countenance.  The 
Child  is  also  placed  with  particular  care,  because  it  is  taken 
obliquely,  in  a  manner  that  one  can  scarcely  perceive  the 
face,  although  one  sees  the  hands  and  the  feet ;  and  these,  I 
believe,  were  made  by  Correggio  purposely  to  avoid  express- 
ing the  natural  form  of  children  just  born,  which  is  not  very 
pleasing.  So,  too,  he  has  almost  hidden  the  face  of  the  old 
shepherd  in  the  foreground,  placing  him  before  another  who 


48o  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

is  more  youthful  and  beautiful,  and  who,  with  a  motion  full  of 
joy,  appears  to  speak  of  this  success  to  the  old  man.  A 
shepherdess,  who  has  two  turtle-doves  in  a  little  basket,  shows 
that  one  never  tires  to  see  the  young  Jesus,  and  that  she  did 
not  know  how  to  depart,  and  covered  her  face  with  her  hand 
to  hide  herself  from  his  splendor.  In  the  upper  part  of  the 
painting,  opposite  to  the  Madonna,  is  a  band  of  angels,  illu- 
minated equal  to  the  Child,  where  Correggio  placed  the  sec- 
ond light,  but  not  so  perfect  as  that  of  the  Madonna,  and 
made  the  shade  more  soft,  as  if  it  were  reflected  or  comprised 
in  a  kind  of  mass  of  light,  perhaps  to  make  known  that  they 
are  spirits." 

The  more  modern  Viardot  is  no  less  enthusiastic  over  the 
nocturnal  radiance  : 

"We  see  here  the  manger  in  which  the  Holy  Infant  was 
laid  :  it  is  night,  and  the  scene  is  only  rendered  visible  by  a 
supernatural  light,  which  spreads  from  the  body  of  the  Child 
lying  on  the  straw.  This  light  illumines  the  face  of  the  Vir- 
gin mother  as  she  bends  over  her  first-born,  and  dazzles  a 
shepherdess  who  has  hastened  in  on  hearing  of  the  '  glad 
tidings.'  It  extends  to  Joseph,  who  is  seen  leading  the  ass  to 
the  back  of  the  stable  ;  it  also  lights  up  the  angels  hovering 
in  the  air,  who  '  seem  rather,'  as  Vasari  says,  '  to  have  de- 
scended from  heaven  than  to  have  been  created  by  the  hand 
of  man.' " 

The  Aurora,  one  of  the  most  purely-beautiful  and  best- 
preserved  frescoes  in  Italy,  was  executed  by  Guido  Reni,  on 
the  ceiling  of  the  casino  belonging  to  the  Rospigliosi  Palace, 
Rome.  It  is  very  easy  of  access,  and  its  inspection  is  facili- 


WORLD-PICTURES.  48x 

tated  by  a  mirror  placed  below  it,  which  perfectly  reflects 
the  whole  picture,  so  that  when  we  grow  tired  of  straining  our 
gaze  toward  the  ceiling  we  can  behold  it  equally  well  in  the 
glass.  In  Charlotte  Eaton's  "  Rome  in  the  Nineteenth  Cen- 
tury," we  find  it  vividly  described  : 

"  On  the  roof  of  the  summer-house  of  the  Palace  Rospi- 
gliosi  is  painted  the  celebrated  fresco  of  Guide's  'Aurora.' 
Its  coloring  is  clear,  harmonious,  airy,  brilliant,  unfaded  by 
time ;  and  the  enthusiastic  admirer  of  Guido's  genius  may  be 
permitted  to  hope  that  this,  his  noblest  work,  will  be  immor- 
tal as  his  fame. 

"Morghen's  fine  engraving  may  give  you  some  idea  of 
the  design  and  composition  of  this  beautiful  painting;  but 
it  cannot  convey  the  soft  harmony  of  the  tints,  the  living 
touches,  the  brilliant  forms,  the  realized  dream  of  the  imagi- 
nation that  bursts  upon  you,  with  all  its  magic,  in  the  match- 
less original.  It  is  embodied  poetry.  The  Hours,  that  hand- 
in-hand  encircle  the  car  of  Phcebus,  advance  with  rapid  pace. 
The  paler,  milder  forms  of  those  gentle  sisters  who  rule  over 
declining  day,  and  the  glowing  glance  of  those  who  bask  in 
the  meridian  blaze,  resplendent  in  the  hues  of  heaven,  are  of 
no  mortal  grace  and  beauty ;  but  they  are  eclipsed  by  Aurora 
herself,  who  sails  on  the  golden  clouds  before  them,  shedding 
showers  of  roses  on  the  rejoicing  earth.  Above  the  heads  of 
the  heavenly  coursers  hovers  the  morning  star,  in  the  form  of 
a  youthful  cherub,  bearing  his  flaming  torch.  Nothing  is 
more  admirable  in  this  beautiful  composition  than  the  motion 
given  to  the  whole.  The  smooth  and  rapid  step  of  the  cir- 
cling Hours  as  they  tread  on  the  fleecy  clouds;  the  fiery  steeds ; 
the  whirling  wheels  of  the  car ;  the  torch  of  Lucifer,  blown 


4g2  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

back  by  the  velocity  of  his  advance ;  and  the  form  of  Aurora 
borne  through  the  ambient  air  till  you  almost  fear  she  should 
float  from  your  sight — all  realize  the  illusion.  You  seem  ad- 
mitted into  the  world  of  fancy,  and  revel  in  its  brightest  crea- 
tions. 

"  In  the  midst  of  such  youth  and  loveliness,  the  dusky 
figure  of  Phcebus  appears  to  great  disadvantage.  It  is  not 
happily  conceived.  Yet  his  air  is  noble  and  godlike,  and  his 
free,  commanding  action  and  conscious  ease,  as  he  carelessly 
guides  with  one  hand  the  fiery  steeds  that  are  harnessed  to 
his  flaming  car,  may  perhaps  compensate  in  some  degree  for 
his  want  of  beauty ;  for  he  certainly  is  not  handsome  ;  and  I 
looked  in  vain  for  the  youthful  majesty  of  the  god  of  day, 
and  thought  on  the  Apollo  Belvedere.  Had  Guido  thought 
of  it  too,  he  never  could  have  made  this  head,  which  is,  I 
think,  the  great  and  only  defect  of  this  exquisite  painting ; 
and  what  makes  it  of  more  importance  is,  that  Apollo,  not 
Aurora,  is  the  principal  figure,  the  first  that  catches  the  eye, 
and  which,  in  spite  of  our  dissatisfaction,  we  are  to  the  last 
obliged  to  contemplate.  The  defects  of  his  Apollo  are  a  new 
proof  of  what  I  have  very  frequently  observed,  that  Guido 
succeeded  far  better  in  feminine  than  in  masculine  beauty." 

The  Portrait  of  Beatrice  Cenci,  also  by  Guido  Reni,  in  the 
Barberini  collection,  Rome,  is  a  work  with  which  all  suppose 
themselves  well  acquainted  from  their  long  familiarity  with 
the  copies  and  engravings  constantly  brought  to  this  country. 
But,  in  truth,  no  picture  abroad  is  more  execrably  imitated 
than  the  "  Beatrice."  No  copy  that  we  are  ever  likely  to  see 
conveys  any  idea  of  the  pathetic  expression  of  the  original. 


WORLD-PICTURES.  ,8 

4«3 

Hawthorne  has  left  us  his  impression  of  its  fascination  on  the 
pages  of  the  "  Marble  Faun  :  " 

"The  picture  of  Beatrice  Cenci  represents  simply  a  fe- 
male head ;  a  very  youthful,  girlish,  and  perfectly  beautiful 
face,  enveloped  in  white  drapery,  from  beneath  which  strays 
a  lock  or  two  of  what  seems  a  rich  though  hidden  luxuriance 
of  auburn  hair.  The  eyes  are  large  and  brown,  and  meet 
those  of  the  spectator  evidently  with  a  strange,  ineffectual 
effort  to  escape.  There  is  a  little  redness  about  the  eyes, 
very  slightly  indicated,  so  that  you  would  question  whether 
or  not  the  girl  had  been  weeping.  The  whole  face  is  very 
quiet ;  there  is  no  distortion  or  disturbance  of  any  single 
feature ;  nor  is  it  easy  to  see  why  the  expression  is  not  cheer- 
ful, or  why  a  single  touch  of  the  artist's  pencil  should  not 
brighten  it  into  joyousness.  But,  in  fact,  it  is  the  very  sad- 
dest picture  ever  painted  or  conceived.  It  involves  an  un- 
fathomable depth  of  sorrow,  the  sense  of  which  comes  to  the 
observer  by  a  sort  of  intuition.  It  is  a  sorrow  that  removes 
this  beautiful  girl  out  of  the  sphere  of  humanity,  and  sets 
her  in  a  far-off  region,  the  remoteness  of  which,  while  yet  her 
face  is  so  close  before  us,  makes  us  shiver  as  at  a  spectre." 

Hillard  says  :  "  It  is  a  beautifully-painted  picture,  repre- 
senting a  young  and  lovely  face,  wrecked  and  shattered  by 
storms  of  suffering.  The  head-dress  is  peculiar,  and  rather 
trying  to  an  artist's  power  of  color,  consisting  of  heavy  folds 
of  white  cloth  wound  round  the  head,  from  which  a  few  locks 
of  yellowish-brown  hair  escape.  There  is  a  deeply-touching 
expression  in  the  eyes,  which  are  large,  soft,  and  lustrous. 
They  look  as  if  they  had  wept  away  all  their  power  of  tears. 
The  lips  are  delicate,  full  of  tremulous  sensibility,  but  abso- 


484  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

lately  rigid  and  frozen  from  intense  suffering.  The  outline 
of  the  face  is  fine,  and  the  features  regular.  The  portrait 
represents  a  young  creature  of  exquisite  organization,  full  of 
imagination  and  sensibility,  capable  of  receiving  and  bestow- 
ing happiness  in  its  rarest  and  finest  forms,  but  out  of  whom 
all  the  life  had  been  pressed  by  hideous  calamity  and  un- 
speakable suffering." 

Iri  Hare's  "  Walks  in  Rome  "  is  quoted  a  translation  of 
the  tradition  relating  to  the  painting  of  this  portrait,  which  I 
here  transcribe  : 

"  Five  days  had  been  passed  by  Beatrice  in  the  secret 
prisons  of  the  Torre  Savella,  when,  at  an  early  hour  in  the 
morning,  her  advocate,  Farinacci,  entered  her  sad  abode. 
With  him  appeared  a  young  man,  of  about  twenty-five  years 
of  age,  dressed  in  the  fashion  of  a  writer  in  the  courts  of 
justice  of  that  day.  Unheeded  by  Beatrice,  he  sat  regarding 
her  at  a  little  distance  with  fixed  attention.  She  had  risen 
from  her  miserable  pallet,  but,  unlike  the  wretched  inmate  of 
a  dungeon,  she  seemed  a  being  from  a  brighter  sphere.  Her 
eyes  were  of  liquid  softness,  her  forehead  large  and  clear, 
her  countenance  of  angelic  purity,  mysteriously  beautiful. 
Around  her  head  a  fold  of  white  muslin  had  been  care- 
lessly wrapped,  whence,  in  rich  luxuriance,  fell  her  fair  and 
waving  hair.  Profound  sorrow  imparted  an  air  of  touching 
sensibility  to  her  lovely  features.  With  all  the  eagerness  of 
hope  she  bade  Farinacci  to  tell  her  frankly  if  his  visit  fore- 
boded good,  and  assured  him  of  her  gratitude  for  the  anxiety 
he  evinced  to  save  her  life  and  that  of  her  family. 

"  Farinacci  conversed  with  her  for  some  time,  while  at  a 
distance  sat  his  companion  sketching  the  features  of  Beatrice. 


WORLD-PICTURES.  4g- 

Turning  round,  she  observed  this  with  displeasure  and  sur- 
prise. Farinacci  explained  that  this  seeming  writer  was  the 
celebrated  painter,  Guido  Reni,  who,  earnestly  desiring  her 
picture,  had  entreated  to  be  introduced  into  the  prison  for 
the  purpose  of  obtaining  so  rich  an  acquisition.  At  first 
unwilling,  but  afterward  consenting,  she  turned  and  said  : 
'  Signer  Guido,  your  renown  might  make  me  desirous  of 
knowing  you,  but  how  will  you  undervalue  me  in  my  present 
situation !  From  the  fatality  that  surrounds  me  you  will  judge 
me  guilty.  Perhaps  my  face  will  tell  you  that  I  am  not 
wicked ;  it  will  show  you,  too,  that  I  now  languish  in  this 
prison,  which  I  may  quit  only  to  ascend  a  scaffold.  Your 
great  name  and  my  sad  story  may  make  my  portrait  interest- 
ing ;  and,'  she  added,  with  touching  simplicity,  '  the  picture 
will  awaken  compassion  if  you  write  on  one  of  its  angles  the 
word  innocente'  The  great  artist  set  himself  to  work,  and 
produced  the  picture  now  in  the  Palazzo  Barberini — a  pict- 
ure that  rivets  the  attention  of  every  beholder ;  which,  once 
seen,  ever  after  hovers  over  the  memory  with  an  interest  the 
most  harrowing  and  mysterious." 

The  Immaculate  Conception  of  the  Virgin  is  one  of  the  finest 
of  the  many  pictures  on  this  subject  painted  by  Murillo.  It 
adorns  the  Salon  Carre"  of  the  Louvre,  and  represents  the 
Virgin  Mary,  pure,  young,  and  lovely,  standing  in  the  clouds 
and  worshiped  by  little  angels,  who  float  in  heavenly  inno- 
cence around.  Mrs.  Jameson  says  : 

"  It  is  evident  that  the  idea  is  taken  from  the  woman  in 
the  Apocalypse,  '  clothed  with  the  sun,  having  the  moon  un- 
der her  feet,  and  on  her  head  a  crown  of  twelve  stars.'  The 


486  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

Virgin  is  portrayed  in  the  first  spring  and  bloom  of  youth ; 
with  grave,  sweet  eyes  ;  her  hair  golden  brown ;  her  features 
with  all  the  beauty  painting  can  express ;  her  hands  folded 
on  her  bosom,  or  joined  in  prayer.  The  sun  is  expressed  by 
a  flood  of  light  around  her.  Her  robe  is  of  spotless  white  ; 
her  mantle  or  scarf  blue.  Round  her  hover  cherubim  ;  and 
all  is  ethereal  delicacy,  benignity,  refinement,  repose — the 
very  apotheosis  of  womanhood." 

An  early  Spanish  authority  observes  : 

"  Our  Lady  is  painted  in  the  flower  of  her  age,  with  sweet 
eyes,  a  nose  and  mouth  of  the  most  perfect  form,  and  rosy 
cheeks.  The  mantling  sun  is  in  bright  golden  light  behirjd 
the  figure  ;  the  pedestal  moon  is  a  crescent  with  upward- 
pointing  horns.  Her  celestial  attendants  are  among  the  love- 
liest cherubs  that  ever  bloomed  on  canvas.  Hovering  in  the 
sunny  air,  reposing  on  clouds,  or  sporting  among  their  silvery 
folds,  these  ministering  shapes  give  life  and  movement  to  the 
picture,  and  relieve  the  Virgin's  statue-like  repose." 

The  Descent  from  the  Cross,  painted  by  Rubens,  in  the  Ant- 
werp Cathedral,  is  the  chef-d'oeuvre  of  Flemish  art.  Rubens's 
style  can  nowhere  be  seen  to  such  advantage  as  in  this  won- 
derful composition.  Charles  Blanc  thus  vividly  describes  it : 

"  The  principal  subject  is  composed  of  nine  figures  ;  two 
workmen,  placed  at  the  top  of  two  ladders,  are  lowering  the 
body  of  our  Saviour  by  means  of  a  winding-sheet,  which  one 
of  them  is  holding  in  his  teeth,  and  the  other  with  his  left 
hand.  Firmly  supported  by  the  arms  of  the  cross,  they  are 
leaning  over,  so  that  with  their  other  hands  they  may  steady 
the  body,  which  John,  with  his  foot  on  the  ladder,  and  his 


WORLD-PICTURES. 


487 


back  bent  in,  clasps  as  tightly  as  possible.  One  of  the  feet 
of  Christ  rests  on  the  fine  shoulder  of  the  Magdalene,  and 
brushes  her  golden  hair.  Joseph  of  Arimathea  and  Nicode- 
mus,  placed  opposite  each  other  on  the  middle  of  the  ladders, 
form,  wich  the  two  workmen  in  the  upper  part  of  the  picture, 
a  square  of  robust  but  vulgar  figures.  The  Virgin  is  standing 
at  the  foot  of  the  cross,  and  is  stretching  her  arms  toward  hex 
Son,  while  Salome,  crouched  down,  is  raising  her  dress.  On 
the  ground  is  seen  a  scroll,  a  copper  vase,  the  crown  of  thorns, 
and  the  nails  used  for  the  crucifixion. 

"  The  populace,  always  delighted  with  the  sight  of  an  ex- 
ecuiion,  have  just  departed  from  Golgotha  at  the  close  of  day. 
The  sky,  which  is  dull  and  dark — solemn  grief  of  Nature  for 
the  sacrifice  on  Mount  Calvary — is  traversed  by  a  light  which 
falls  on  the  shoulder  of  one  of  the  workmen,  whose  bold  atti- 
tude reminds  you  of  the  '  Descent '  of  Volterra." 

The  remarkable  coloring  of  the  picture  is  commented  on- 
by  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  : 

"  The  greatest  peculiarity  of  this  composition  is  the  con- 
trivance of  the  white  sheet  on  which  the  body  of  Jesus  lies, 
This  circumstance  was  probably  what  induced  Rubens  to 
adopt  the  treatment.  He  well  knew  what  effect  white  lirren*. 
opposed  to  flesh,  must  have  with  his  powers  of  coloring ;  a 
circumstance  which  was  not  likely  to  enter  into-  the  mind  of: 
an  Italian  painter,  who  would  have  been  afraid  of  the  linen's, 
hurting  the  coloring  of  the  flesh,  and  have  kept  it  down  of.  a. 
low  tint.  And  the  truth  is,  that  none  but  great  colorists  can. 
venture  to  paint  pure  white  linen  near  flesh  ;  but.  such  know 
the  advantage  of  it.  His  Christ  I  consider  as  one.  of  the 
finest  figures  that  ever  were  invented;  it  is  most  correctly 
32 


488  SCHOOLS  AND  MASTERS  OF  PAINTING. 

drawn,  and  I  apprehend  in  an  attitude  of  the  utmost  diffi- 
culty to  execute.  The  hanging  of  the  head  on  his  shoulder, 
and  the  falling  of  the  body  on  one  side,  give  such  an  appear- 
ance of  the  heaviness  of  death  that  nothing  can  exceed  it. 

"  Of  the  three  Maries,  two  of  them  have  more  beauty  than 
he  generally  bestowed  on  female  figures,  but  no  great  ele- 
gance of  character.  The  St.  Joseph  of  Arimathea  is  the  same 
countenance  which  he  so  often  introduced  into  his  works  ;  a 
smooth,  fat  face — a  very  unhistorical  character. 

"  The  principal  light  is  formed  by  the  body  of  Christ  and 
the  white  sheet ;  there  is  no  second  light  which  bears  any 
proportion  to  the  principal.  In  this  respect  it  has  more  the 
manner  of  Rembrandt's  disposition  of  light  than  any  other  of 
Rubens's  works;  however,  there  are  many  little  detached 
lights,  distributed  at  some  distance  from  the  general  mass, 
such  as  the  head  and  shou!4ers  of  the  Magdalene,  the  heads 
of  the  two  other  Maries,  the  head  of  St.  Joseph,  and  the  back 
and  arm  of  the  figure  leaning  over  the  cross  ;  the  whole  sur- 
rounded with  a  dark  sky,  except  a  little  light  in  the  horizon 
and  above  the  cross. 

"  The  historical  anecdote  relating  to  this  picture  says  that 
it  was  given  in  exchange  for  a  piece  of  ground  on  which  Ru- 
bens built  his  house;  and  that  the  agreement  was  only  for  a 
picture  of  the  patron  saint  Christopher  with  the  infant  Christ 
on  his  shoulders.  Rubens,  who  wished  to  create  surprise  by 
his  generosity,  sent  five  pictures  instead  of  one ;  a  piece  of 
gallantry  on  the  part  of  the  painter  which  was  undoubtedly 
well  received  by  the  Arquebusers,  since  it  was  so  much  to 
their  advantage,  however  expensive  to  the  maker  of  it." 


APPENDIX. 


THE    GALLERIES   OF   FLORENCE. 

FLORENCE  is  preeminently  the  city  of  painting.  Go  to  Rome  for 
sculpture,  to  Milan  for  music,  and  to  Florence  for  pictures.  No  gal- 
lery on  the  Continent  surpasses  the  famous  Uffizi ;  few  boast  of  richer 
treasures  than  the  elegant  apartments  of  the  Pitti,  and  none  can  be 
more  curious  than  the  quaint  and  venerable  collection  of  the  Acade- 
mia  delle  Belle  Arti. 

This  Academy  of  the  Fine  Arts — though  less  interesting  to  the  gen- 
eral public  than  the  larger  galleries — is  invaluable  as  a  record  of  the 
first  efforts  of  Florentine  painters.  Its  rooms  are  spacious  and  pleas- 
ant, but  very  still  and  lonely,  and  you  feel  yourself  centuries  back  in 
the  dim  past  as  you  walk  up  and  down  amid  the  creations  of  Cimabue 
and  Giotto.  Just  at  the  entrance  are  two  large  "  Madonnas "  by 
these  masters,  whose  almond-shaped  eyes,  impassive  faces,  and  heavy 
draperies,  were  once  thought  the  ideal  of  majestic  beauty.  We  can- 
not understand  their  popularity  till  we  contemplate  a  Byzantine  "  Mag- 
dalene "  near  them,  standing  like  a  hideous  wooden  doll,  with  ver- 
milion-daubed cheeks,  a  gown  of  reddish-brown,  and  explanatory 
scroll.  A  series  of  small  pictures  by  Giotto,  on  the  legend  of  St. 
Francis,  and  another  series,  by  the  same  artist,  on  the  life  of  Christ, 
hang  on  their  left.  Recent  critics  suppose  them  to  have  been  exe- 
cuted by  his  pupils  rather  than  by  himself,  but  they  excite  our  atten- 
tion from  the  fact  that  they  represent  in  miniature,  and  often  with 
great  force  of  expression,  scenes  which  were  afterward  given  in  larger 
proportions  by  later  artists.  Thus  Giotto's  small  "Transfiguration" 
is  very  like  Raphael's,  while  he  vividly  depicts  the  most  ancient  types 
of  "The  Resurrection"  and  "The  Last  Supper."  "The  Presenta- 
tion in  the  Temple  "  is  one  of  the  finest  of  the  set. 


490 


APPENDIX. 


Here  we  see  a  "  Baptism  of  Christ  "  by  Verrochio,  the  teacher  of 
Leonardo  da  Vinci,  in  which  the  earliest  specimen  of  Leonardo's 
handiwork  is  preserved.  One  of  the  kneeling  angels,  in  blue  drapery, 
is  said  to  have  been  painted  in  by  the  youthful  genius,  to  the  utter 
disgust  of  his  master,  who,  finding  himself  excelled  by  a  mere  boy, 
abandoned  his  easel  forever  and  returned  to  sculpture.  This  is  prob- 
ably an  exaggeration,  but  it  might  soothe  the  artist's  wounded  feel- 
ings to  know  that  at  our  distance  of  time  no  traveler  can  tell  which 
is  his  angel  and  which  is  Leonardo's,  till  the  guide-books  are  called 
in  to  settle  the  question. 

On  the  same  side  of  the  room  are  a  few  of  Perugino's  early  and 
pleasing  works.  Their  landscape-backgrounds  are  very  primitive, 
with  trees  like  inverted  brooms,  but  the  faces  of  the  lamenting  women 
in  his  "  Crucifixion  "  and  "  Pieta  "  are  intensely  sad  and  sweet.  His 
"Assumption  of  the  Virgin,"  brought  from  the  convent  of  Vallom- 
brosa,  is  noted  as  one  of  his  best  efforts.  Close  to  these  is  a  singular 
composition  by  Mariotto  Albertinelli,  entitled  a  "Trinity."  Christ 
is  suspended  on  an  Egyptian  cross,  whose  arms  and  base  are  upheld 
by  cherubs.  Over  him  hovers  a  dove,  while  behind  and  above  the 
cross  we  perceive  God  the  Father  in  a  red  robe,  holding  in  his  hand 
an  open  book,  on  whose  pages  are  inscribed  the  Alpha  and  Omega. 
A  large  and  charming  "  Annunciation,"  by  the  same  painter,  shows 
us  the  Virgin  in  pale-purple  garment,  and  dark  bluish-green  mantle, 
the  angel  kneeling  beside  her  with  a  bunch  of  lilies,  God  the  Father 
and  the  Holy  Ghost  above,  streaming  down  rays  of  light  upon  her  head. 

Fra  Bartolomeo,  the  friend  of  Albertinelli,  is  represented  by  Ma- 
donnas and  saints,  always  beautiful  and  dignified ;  but  his  master- 
.  pieces  must  be  sought  in  the  Pitti  Palace.  We  shall,  however,  be 
interested  in,  yet  disappointed  by,  his  head  of  Savonarola.  Carlo 
Dolci  has  idealized  the  head  of  Fra  Angelico  in  an  adjoining  room. 
The  Academy  is  the  unfortunate  possessor  of  another  Carlo  Dolci, 
catalogued  as  "  God  the  Father."  This  fully  deserves  the  severe  con- 
demnation passed  upon  it  by  Hawthorne  in  his  "Italian  Note-book." 
It  is  in  the  painter's  worst  manner,  applied  to  the  most  inappropriate 
subject.  Lorenzo  di  Credi  and  Ghirlandajo  have  left  us  excellent 
"  Nativities."  Raffaellino  del  Garbo  has  a  fantastic  "  Resurrection," 
where  a  sculptured  sarcophagus  stands  in  the  midst  of  a  green 
meadow.  The  Saviour,  soaring  out  of  it  with  his  red-cross  banner, 
has  burst  off  the  lid,  which  crushes  one  of  the  sleeping  guards  in  its 


THE   GALLERIES  OF  FLORENCE.  49I 

fall,  and  alarms  the  others,  who  fly  in  dismay  from  the  spot.  Many 
of  these  pictures  were  completed  before  the  practice  of  oil-painting 
became  general,  and  are  often  executed  on  wood  instead  of  canvas, 
but  have  wonderfully  preserved  their  colors,  which  are  occasionally 
heightened  by  the  addition  of  gold-leaf,  as  in  Gentile  da  Fabriano's 
large  and  splendid  "  Adoration  of  the  Magi,"  also  remarkable  for  its 
rich,  antique  frame. 

Fra  Angelico  is  chiefly  to  be  studied  in  the  cloisters  and  cells  of 
the  monastery  of  San  Marco,  but  several  examples  of  his  pure,  ideal 
style  are  here  collected.  The  most  interesting  are  a  "  Descent  from 
the  Cross,"  a  "Christ  in  Hades,"  and  a  "Last  Judgment,"  de- 
scribed in  the  chapter  upon  "  Early  Italian  Painting."  The  beauty 
of  the  angel  groups  on  the  right-hand  side  of  the  "  The  Last  Judg- 
ment "  displays  all  the  most  attractive  qualities  of  the  artist  monk. 
Some  of  his  small  panel-pictures  are  likewise  very  pleasing,  especially 
a  little  "  Coronation  of  the  Virgin,"  containing  only  the  two  figures 
of  Christ  and  the  Madonna,  both  in  pale-purple  drapery.  The 
groundwork  is  gold,  shading  off  to  dark  blue,  and  studded  with 
seraph  heads  in  a  crimson  circle. 

The  Academy  also  includes  several  rooms  of  casts,  bass-reliefs, 
designs,  and  drawings,  together  with  an  exhibition  of  pictures  by 
modern  Italian  artists. 

The  Gallery  of  the  Uffizi,  for  which  we  must  primarily  thank  the 
Medici  family,  commemorates  its  origin  by  the  busts  of  the  Medici 
that  adorn  its  vestibule.  This  vestibule  is  reached  by  a  long  ascent 
of  stairs,  which  are  the  usual  purgatory  preceding  Italy's  pictorial 
paradises.  From  the  first  vestibule  opens  a  small  chamber  contain- 
ing the  stone  originals  of  the  famous  Florentine  "Boar"  and  "  Wolf- 
dogs,"  so  extensively  copied  in  bronze.  Through  this  chamber  we 
are  admitted  into  the  east  corridor  of  the  gallery. 

The  gallery  surrounds  three  sides  of  a  rectangular  court,  and  is 
composed  of  two  long  and  stately  parallel  corridors,  united  by  a 
shorter  transverse  corridor,  from  whose  window  we  obtain  an  en- 
chanting view  of  the  Arno  and  blue  encircling  mountains.  Many- 
rooms  are  added  along  the  outer  sides  of  the  gallery,  filled  either 
with  paintings,  statues,  terra-cottas,  drawings,  vases,  coins,  gems, 
or  bronzes  ;  for  the  Uffizi  is  a  tnus/e,  as  well  as  a  collection  of  pict- 
ures, and  all  cultivated  tastes  may  here  find  gratification. 

Down  the  well-lighted  marble  corridor  which  we  first  enter  the 


492 


APPENDIX, 


vista  is  grand  and  imposing.  As  far  as  the  eye  can  reach  we  behold 
a  file  of  statues,  placed  at  intervals  below  the  pictures,  and  gradually 
fading  into  perspective.  Here  and  there  copyists  are  seated  at  their 
easels,  and  groups  of  visitors  are  passing  to  and  fro.  The  paintings 
are  chronologically  arranged,  beginning  at  the  nearer  end  with  a  few 
of  the  earliest  efforts  of  the  Tuscan  school,  among  which  the  most 
noteworthy  are  Cimabue's  "  St.  Cecilia ;  "  a  "  Christ  on  the  Mount  of 
Olives,"  ascribed  to  Giotto;  an  "Annunciation,"  by  Simone  and 
Lippo  Memmi,  where  the  Virgin,  on  a  Gothic  throne,  seems  dread- 
fully frightened  by  the  angel  Gabriel,  who  holds  an  olive-branch  in- 
stead of  a  lily  ;  and  a  "  Tabernacle,"  or  altar-piece,  by  Fra  Angelico, 
representing  a  Madonna  and  Child  surrounded  by  the  celebrated 
angels  with  which  we  are  so  familiar.  The  location  of  this  picture  is 
plainly  indicated  by  the  unwearied  copyists  before  it,  who  cannot 
work  fast  enough  to  supply  the  demand  for  these  fascinating  angels, 
always  executed  on  small  gilt  panels. 

A  little  farther  on  we  meet  a  very  charming  "  Adoration  of  the 
Child,"  by  Lorenzo  di  Credi ;  an  extraordinary  "Annunciation,"  by 
Botticelli,  where  the  angel  appears  in  a  short  red  skirt  and  boots  ;  and 
a  "  Madonna,"  by  Botticelli,  depicting  the  Virgin  seated  in  state,  and 
attended  by  angels  holding  an  ink-horn  and  an  open  book  in  which 
Mary  is  writing  the  "Magnificat."  Behind  her  chair  stands  the  fig- 
ure of  Lorenzo  de  Medici,  as  a  boy.  A  "  Birth  of  Venus,"  also  by 
Botticelli,  is  one  of  the  first  classical  paintings  of  the  Renaissance ; 
while  a  mythological  picture  near  it,  representing  Venus  combing 
Cupid's  hair,  and  diligently  searching  among  his  ctirls,  is  more  sug- 
gestive of  Naples  than  of  Mount  Olympus. 

SomeWhat  beyond  the  centre  of  the  corridor  a  door  opens  into 
the  Tribune,  where  many  of  the  most  splendid  works  of  art  in  the 
world  are  gathered.  This  is  the  home  of  the  "Venus  de  Medici," 
and  of  four  other  antique  statues — "The  Satyr,"  "The  Wrestlers,'' 
"  The  Grinder,"  and  "  The  Young  Apollo  ;  "  but  it  is  pictures,  and 
not  statuary,  of  which  we  are  now  to  speak.  The  apartment  is  oc- 
tagonal, and  lighted  from  above.  It  is  only  about  twenty-five  feet  in 
diameter,  but  its  contents  are  of  priceless  value.  To  the  leTt,  as  we 
enter,  hangs  Raphael's  "  Madonna  of  the  Goldfinch,"  framed  under 
glass.  His  portrait  of  Pope  Julius  is  beside  it,  as  is  likewise  a  dark-eyed 
portrait  called  "  The  Fornarina."  It  is,  however,  doubtful  whether 
this  is  really  Raphael's  work,  for  several  authorities  agree  in  assign- 


THE   GALLERIES  OF  FLORENCE.  40, 

ing  it  to  Sebastian  del  Piombo.  Similar  doubts  have  been  expressed 
as  to  the  genuineness  of  "The  Madonna  at  the  Well."  Another 
female  portrait,  and  a  youthful  "  St.  John,"  also  bear  the  name  of 
the  illustrious  master. 

Andrea  del  Sarto's  "Madonna  with  Sts.  John  and  Francis,"  di- 
rectly opposite  the  door,  is  believed  to  be  the  finest  example  of  his 
style.  The  Virgin,  who  is  elevated  on  a  pedestal  ornamented  with 
harpies  and  supported  by  boy-angels,  wears,  as  usual,  the  features 
of  his  worthless  wife ;  but  the  face  is  lovely,  the  coloring  pure  and 
tender,  and  the  attitudes  of  all  the  figures  very  graceful.  Guercino's 
"  Samian  Sibyl,"  in  red  robe  and  brown  mantle,  sits  leaning  her  head 
upon  her  hand,  less  inspired  but  more  profoundly  pensive  than  her 
Cumaean  sister  at  Rome.  Luini  has  an  exquisitely-finished  "  Daugh- 
ter of  Herodias,"  with  the  head  of  St.  John  Baptist,  long  ascribed  to 
Leonardo.  Two  "  Prophets,"  by  Fra  Bartolomeo,  give  no  adequate 
idea  of  his  powers.  A  "  Holy  Family,"  by  Michael  Angelo— the 
only  easel-piece  of  the  great  Florentine  whose  authenticity  has  not 
been  questioned — depicts  the  Child  in  the  arms  of  Joseph,  with  the 
Virgin  seated  on  the  ground  below  them.  It  is  rigid  in  outline,  and 
not  attractive  in  expression  or  arrangement.  Correggio's  kneeling 
"  Madonna,"  under  glass,  gracefully  and  ecstatically  adoring  the  In- 
fant, who  reposes  on  her  veil  before  her,  is  very  generally  admired. 
Titian's  two  figures  of  "  Venus "  seem  sadly  inappropriate  com- 
panions for  Madonnas  and  holy  families.  One  of  them  lies  on  a 
red  mantle,  caressing  Cupid  ;  the  other,  and  finer  form,  reclines 
upon  a  white  sheet,  under  the  shadow  of  pale-green  curtains.  The 
portrait  of  Cardinal  Beccadelli  affords  more  agreeable  proof  of 
Titian's  genius. 

Only  a  few  German  masters  have  -found  admission  to  this  art- 
sanctum.  An  "  Adoration  of  the  Kings,"  by  Albrecht  Diirer,  will  be 
seen  near  the  right-hand  door.  The  fair-faced  Virgin,  with  flowing 
flaxen  hair,  is  very  gentle  and  German  in  aspect.  The  magi,  one  of 
whom  is  a  negro,  are  grouped  before  her.  Rubens  has  a  painting  of 
no  great  merit  entitled  "  Venus  and  Minerva  contending  for  a  Youth." 
Why  Cranach's  nude  and  awkward  "  Adam  "  and  "  Eve  "  should  be 
members  of  this  select  circle  is  a  question  difficult  to  answer.  None, 
however,  will  dispute  the  right  of  entrance  to  Vandyck's  splendid 
portraits  of  "Charles  V.  on  Horseback,"  and  the  noble  cavalier  "  Jean 
de  Montfort." 


494 


APPENDIX. 


Passing  from  the  Tribune  we  reach  the  saloons  of  the  Tuscan  and 
Lombard  schools,  where  we  notice  an  unfinished  "  Adoration  of  the 
Magi,"  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  wholly  brown  in  tint;  also  a  weird 
and  wonderful  "  Medusa  Head,"  attributed  to  Leonardo,  and  gen- 
erally kept  lying  beneath  a  glass  case.  The  Fury  is  expiring  in 
ghastly  beauty ;  the  ringlets  of  her  hair  gradually  turning  into  ser- 
pents. Another  frightful  "  Medusa  Head,"  by  Caravaggio,  painted 
on  convex  board,  with  snaky  locks  and  open,  screaming  mouth,  hangs 
in  an  adjoining  apartment.  A  small  but  admirable  "  Portrait  of  an 
Old  Man"  is  ascribed  to  Masaccio.  Sodoma's  "St.  Sebastian,"  and 
Bronzino's  "  Descent  into  Hades  "  and  Medici  portraits,  are  chefs- 
d'oeuvre  of  the  respective  masters.  Ridolfo  Ghirlandajo's  large  compo- 
sitions on  the  "Miracle  and  Death  of  St.  Zenobius"  are  curiously  full 
of  incidents.  Albertinelli's  "  Salutation,"  or  "  Meeting  of  Mary  and 
Elizabeth,"  is  particularly  worthy  of  attention.  The  two  women,  in 
richly-colored  draperies,  embrace  each  other  under  a  massive  sculpt- 
ured arch,  with  a  background  of  blue  Italian  sky.  A  sumptuous 
"Coronation  of  the  Virgin,"  by  Fra  Angelico,  painted  on  a  gold 
ground,  with  fluttering  bands  of  angels  blowing  long,  slender  trump- 
ets, is  usually  removed  from  its  place  upon  the  wall,  and  stands  on  an 
easel  for  copying. 

A  saloon  of  the  Dutch  school  gives  but  a  meagre  idea  of  the  art 
of  Holland.  A  cloudy  "  Landscape,"  by  Ruysdael ;  an  "  Apple- 
Woman,"  and  "  Schoolmaster,"  by  Gerard  Dow;  some  genre  scenes 
by  Metsu,  Mieris,  Steen,  and  Ostade ;  Schalken's  "  Seamstress  sewing 
by  Candle-light ;  "  an  "  Interior,"  and  one  or  two  landscapes,  by  Rem- 
brandt, are  its  chief  attractions.  The  Flemings  and  Germans  have  a 
"  Madonna,"  by  Memling  ;  another  "  Madonna,"  by  Vandyck  ;  a 
"  Venus  and  Adonis,"  and  "  Silenus,"  by  Rubens ;  three  or  four 
"Teniers;"  Cranach's  "Luther  and  Melanchthon ;  "  two  or  three 
portraits  by  Holbein ;  several  sacred  pictures  of  the  old  Nuremberg 
school ;  and  a  most  extraordinary  German  rendering  of  the  "  Resur- 
rection of  Lazarus,"  where  the  lid  has  been  raised  from  a  large  stone 
sarcophagus,  while  Lazarus,  who  lay  inside,  is  assisted  into  a  sitting 
posture.  He  has  the  face  of  a  grinning  death's-head,  and  stretches 
out  his  hands  toward  his  astonished  sisters.  One  of  the  figures  stand- 
ing near  the  sarcophagus  turns  away,  and  holds  his  nose. 

The  cabinet  of  the  French  school  is  mostly  filled  with  battle- 
pieces,  but  contains  two  of  Poussin's  paintings ;  a  portrait  and  auto- 


THE   GALLERIES  OF  FLORENCE.  4ge 

graph  of  Alfieri;  a  portrait  of  Rousseau;  an  equestrian  figure  of 
Francis  I.,  ascribed  to  Clouet  ;  and  a  few  small  works  by  Mignard, 
Jouvenet,  Horace  Vernet,  and  others.  A  fine  "  Marine  View,"  by 
Claude  Lorraine,  now  hanging  among  the  Flemish  and  German  pict- 
ures, belongs  properly  to  this  chamber. 

Very  interesting  saloons  also  open  from  the  west  side  of  the  cor- 
ridor, the  most  beautiful  of  which*  is  the  "  Hall  of  Niobe."  This 
spacious  and  splendid  room  contains  the  famous  statues  of  the 
children  of  Niobe.  The  paintings  are  of  secondary  importance,  con- 
sisting principally  of  large  historical  pieces  by  Rubens  and  Suster- 
mans  ;  a  "  Hunt,"  by  Snyders  ;  and  occasional  portraits  by  Flemish 
masters.  The  neighboring  "  Saloon  of  Baroccio  "  shows  us  some 
of  the  best  specimens  of  that  artist,  especially  the  "  Madonna  del 
Popolo,"  and  a  "  Herodiade."  Travelers  will  here  be  glad  to  see  the 
original  of  Carlo  Dolci's  "  Penitent  Magdalene,"  with  the  vase.  His 
"  Angel  of  the  Annunciation  "  is  often  removed  to  an  easel  in  the 
Hall  of  Niobe  for  the  convenience  of  copyists.  A  "  Sibyl,"  by  Guido 
Reni,  holding  a  scroll  inscribed  '  Nascetur  de  Virgine,'  has  the  up- 
turned eyes  and  closely-draped  head  so  suggestive  of  Guide's  ideal 
of  sentiment :  much  the  same  ideal  as  is  expressed  in  Sassoferrato's 
"  Mater  Dolorosa."  Rubens  gives  us  portraits  of  his  first  and  of  his 
second  wife,  as  well  as  a  "  Bacchanalian  Scene."  The  portrait  of 
"Philip  IV.  of  Spain,"  attributed  to  Velasquez,  was  formerly  as- 
cribed to  Rubens,  but  Viardot  considers  it  unworthy  of  either.  Two 
fine  "  Adorations  of  the  Child  Jesus,"  by  Gerard  Honthorst,  are  ex- 
cellent examples  of  that  peculiar  breadth  of  light  and  shadow  which 
gained  for  him  his  Italian  title  "  Gherardo  della  Notte,"  Gerard  of  the 
Night. 

The  most  celebrated  remaining  paintings  are  collected  in  the 
Venetian  saloons,  which  shine  with  ruby  and  amber  coloring.  Here 
Titian  is  displayed  in  a  "Battle  Sketch;"  a  half-draped  "Flora," 
holding  flowers,  whose  features  remind  us  of  Violante,  the  fair 
daughter  of  Palma  Vecchio  ;  a  "  Madonna  and  Child  with  Ser- 
aphim ; "  a  "  Virgin  and  Infant  Christ ;  "  and  several  magnificent  por- 
traits, particularly  that  of  the  Queen  of  Cyprus.  Giorgione  has  left  us 
a  "  Knight  of  Malta ; "  while  the  name  of  Gian  Bellini  is  attached  to 
a  chiaro-oscuro  picture  of  a  "  Dead  Christ."  Portraits  by  Tintoretto, 
Moroni,  Bassano,  and  Paris  Bordone,  are  characterized  by  their  usual 
vigor  and  richness ;  and  a  "  Last  Supper,"  by  Bonifazio ;  a  »  Crucifix- 


496 


APPENDIX. 


ion,"  and  a  splendid  "  Esther  before  Ahasuerus,"  by  Paul  Veronese, 
are  most  elaborately  and  gorgeously  Venetian. 

Among  the  most  attractive  apartments  of  the  gallery  may  be 
classed  the  two  "  Saloons  of  the  Painters,"  filled  with  portraits  of  art- 
ists, executed  by  themselves.  None  are  nobler  and  more  stately  than 
that  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  Raphael's  familiar  and  pensive  counte- 
nance has  its  place  of  honor,  wifh  his  master,  Perugino,  above  him, 
and  his  pupil,  Giulio  Romano,  below.  Michael  Angelo  and  Gian 
Bellini  look  down  from  the  wall.  Titian,  Tintoretto,  and  Paul  Ve- 
ronese, are  speaking  and  vivid  likenesses ;  while  later  Italian  art  is 
represented  by  Andrea  del  Sarto,  the  Carracci,  Guido,  Domenichino, 
Guercino,  Carlo  Dolce,  and  many  others.  Albrecht  Diirer,  aged  but 
twenty-seven,  stands  with  flowing  hair,  and  tranquil,  elevated  expres- 
sion. Rembrandt,  Rubens,  Vandyck,  and  Jordaens,  are  close  to- 
gether. Gerard  Dow  is  a  gentlemanly  Dutchman,  and  resembles 
his  own  pictures.  Scarcely  any  Spaniards,  except  Ribera  aud  Velas- 
quez, are  included  in  the  collection.  The  interest  is  enhanced  by 
some  quite  modern  portraits,  such  as-  "  Raphael  Mengs,"  "  Over- 
beck,"  and  "Sir  Joshua  Reynolds;"  and  especially  by  the  very 
charming  and  fascinating  figures  of  "  Angelica  Kaufmann  "  and 
"  Madame  Lebrun,"  both  beauties  as  well  as  artists. 

Stepping  through  a  side-door  and  descending  a  staircase,  we  pass 
from  a  saloon  of  Etruscan  vases  to  the  corridor,  which  connects  the 
Uffizi  Gallery  with  the  Pitti  Palace,  and  which  is  in  fact  a  long  private 
bridge,  crossing  the  Arno,  formerly  used  for  the  convenience  of  the 
Medici  family.  It  is  now  equally  convenient  for  travelers,  and  is  lined 
with  valuable  drawings  from  the  old  masters,  numbering  in  all  about 
twenty-eight  thousand.  These  are  exhibited  in  cases  and  on  the  walls, 
and  changed  from  time  to  time  by  the  custodians.  It  is  very  interesting 
to  find  the  original  pencil  or  chalk  studies  of  Raphael's  Madonnas,  Fra 
Bartolomed's  Evangelists,  Domenichino's  Martyrdoms,  Andrea  del 
Sarto's  Holy  Families,  and  many  other  renowned  works.  Sketches  by 
Claude  Lorraine,  Albrecht  Diirer,  and  German  landscapists  abound, 
as  do  various  specimens  of  the  art  of  engraving.  Heavy  pieces  of 
tapestry  from  the  old  looms  of  the  Medici  are  also  preserved,  fre- 
quently showing  the  Medici  coat-of-arms  and  large  classical  subjects. 
An  elaborate  and  finely-woven  "  Entombment "  has  admirably  shaded 
figures  of  life-size.  The  small  water-color  paintings  of  fish,  birds,  and 
flowers,  which  we  reach  after  walking  some  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes, 
indicate  that  we  are  near  the  doors  of  the  Pitti  Palace. 


THE   GALLERIES  OF  FLORENCE,  497 

The  Pitti  Gallery  which  we  thus  enter  is  not  strictly  intended  as 
an  art-museum,  but  is  the  accumulated  private  collection  of  the  Grand- 
dukes  of  Tuscany — eminently  creditable  to  their  royal  tastes.  The 
palace  itself  was  begun  in  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century,  by  a 
Florentine  merchant,  Luca  Pitti,  but  was  afterward  sold  to  the  wife 
of  the  Grand-duke  Cosmo  de  Medici,  under  whom  it  was  completed. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  imposing  monumental  structures  of  Europe, 
built  of  immense  blocks  of  stone,  some  of  which  are  as  long  as  five 
men. 

Its  picture-gallery,  which  may  be  also  approached  from  the  square, 
is  in  the  left  "wing  of  the  palace.  Nearly  five  hundred  paintings  are 
distributed  through  its  fourteen  superb  saloons.  These  saloons  are 
adorned  with  tables  and  vases,  and  elegantly  decorated  with  rich  ceil- 
ing frescoes  by  Pietro  da  Cortona  and  late  Italian  masters.  Their 
classical  subjects  are  all  intended  to  bear  upon  the  history  of  the 
Medici,  of  whom  Taine  enthusiastically  remarks,  "  Poisoning  and 
assassination  were  hereditary  in  this  family,  but  their  tables  of  mala- 
chite and  mosaic  are  so  beautiful ! " 

The  Saloon  of  the  Iliad,  so  called  from  the  mythological  fres- 
coes, contains  some  portraits  by  Titian  ;  a  celebrated  "  Assumption," 
by  Andrea  del  Sarto,  where  the  Virgin,  arrayed  in  white,  sits  amid 
angels  on  the  clouds,  her  empty  tomb  and  adoring  apostles  below 
her ;  a  large  "  Enthroned  Madonna,"  by  Fra  Bartolomeo ;  an  un- 
known female  head,  sometimes  catalogued  as  the  work  of  Raphael ; 
Giorgione's  strongly-painted  "  Concert  of  Three  Musicians ; "  Peru- 
gino's  "  Adoration  of  the  Child,"  probably  repeated  from  the  triptych 
now  in  the  London  Gallery;  Parmagiano's  graceful  but  affected 
"Madonna,"  known  as  the  "Madonna  of  the  Long  Neck;"  and 
Carlo  Dolce's  "Martha,"  "St.  John,"  and  "Moses."  This  room 
is,  however,  inferior  in  interest  to  the 

Saloon  of  Saturn,  where  we  find  Raphael's  early  "  Madonna  del 
Baldacchino,"  so  very  like  in  style  to  the  Virgins  of  Fra  Bartolomeo; 
his  small  but  perfectly-finished  "  Vision  of  Ezekiel ; "  and  the  por- 
traits of  "Cardinal  Bibbiena,"  the  learned  "  Tommaso  Inghirami," 
and  "  Pope  Julius  II.,"  a  duplicate  of  which  has  been  already  men- 
tioned in  the  Tribune  of  the  Uffizi.  Fra  Bartolomeo's  "  Risen  Christ " 
is  a  majestic  example  of  his  mature  powers.  Guercino's  "  Head  of 
St.  Peter  "  is  a  fine  conception  of  the  apostle.  Andrea  del  Sarto 
has  an  "  Annunciation  "  in  the  open  air,  before  a  mediaeval  palace ; 


498  APPENDIX. 

and  a  renowned  picture  called  a  <'  Dispute  or  Discussion  on  the  Trin- 
ity," in  which  "  St.  Augustine  stands  in  an  attitude  of  great  dignity, 
expounding  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  :  St.  Francis  is  meditating, 
and  St.  Peter  the  Dominican  consults  an  open  volume.  St.  Law- 
rence, St.  Sebastian,  and  St.  Mary  Magdalene,  are  listening  around." 
Sebastian  del  Piombo's  powerful  "Martyrdom  of  St.  Agatha"  por- 
trays the  suffering  saint  as  fat,  and  not  too  fair ;  Carlo  Dolce's  little 
"  Dream  of  St.  John  "  displays  to  us  the  child  Baptist  asleep  upon  a 
cross,  while  the  aged  Elizabeth  and  Zacharias  watch  beside  him. 
Guido  has  a  royal  "  Cleopatra,"  with  an  asp  at  her  bosom  ;  Perugino 
a  solemn  "  Entombment."  Lorenzo  Lotti,  a  Venetian  artist,  is  dis- 
tinguished by  an  excellent  portrait-group,  known  as  the  "  Three 
Periods  of  Life ; "  and  Giulio  Romano  is  represented  by  a  gay  and 
graceful  "  Dance  of  Apollo  and  the  Muses,"  in  small  but  exquisite 
proportions,  on  a  gold  ground. 

In  the  Saloon  of  "Jupiter  Era  Bartolomeo's  colossal  "  St.  Mark  " 
may  be  regarded  as  the  most  important  picture.  The  evangelist  is 
enthroned  under  an  arch,  holding  in  one  hand  the  book  of  his  Gos- 
pel, in  the  other  a  pen.  A  portrait  of  a  "  Nun,"  in  white  veil  and 
black  robe,  ascribed  to  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  is  beautifully  executed, 
but  probably  not  authentic,  being  the  handiwork  of  some  lesser 
master  of  the  Lombard  school.  Another  disputed  painting  is  the 
celebrated  "  Parcas,"  or  "Three  Fates,"  ascribed  by  some  to  Michael 
Angelo,  by  others  to  one  of  his  pupils.  Three  haggard  and  sorcer- 
ess-like female  figures  pass  the  thread  of  life  through  their  skinny 
fingers :  the  first  unwinds,  the  second  holds,  and  the  third  cuts  it.  A 
small  work  by  Paul  Veronese  is  more  interesting  from  its  subject 
than  from  its  technical  treatment.  It  delineates  the  Saviour's  last 
parting  from  his  mother  on  the  night  before  the  crucifixion  ;  the 
scene  a  Venetian  balcony,  the  light  a  declining  sunset.  On  the 
next  wall  hangs  Andrea  del  Sarto's  "  Madonna  with  Four  Saints," 
his  last  Florentine  easel-piece  ;  and  a  short  distance  from  it  we  per- 
ceive his  own  and  his  wife's  portrait,  coupled  on  the  same  canvas. 
Salvator  Rosa  has  left  us  a  "  Battle  Landscape,"  and  a  "  Conspiracy 
of  Catiline,"  considered  one  of  his  best  figure-pieces.  In  a  "  Holy 
Family,"  by  Rubens,  the  children  are  looking  intently  into  each  oth- 
er's eyes  ;  but  Rubens  cannot  abandon  mythology,  and  may  be  more 
appropriately  studied  in  a  large,  muscular  and  rosy  composition  of 
"  Nymphs  attacked  by  Satyrs." 


THE  GALLERIES  OF  FLORENCE. 

499 

The  Saloon  of  Mars  is  the  honored  abode  of  Raphael's  "  Seggi- 
ola  Madonna,"  or  "  Madonna  of  the  Chair,"  of  which  every  one  has 
seen  a  copy.  The  original  round  picture,  carefully  treasured  under 
glass,  has  Raphael's  dreamy  eyes  and  sweetest  maternal  expression. 
Tradition  says  it  was  first  sketched  on  the  top  of  a  cask.  Opposite 
hangs  his  "  Madonna  dell'  Impannata,"  so  called  from  the  linen  cloth 
which  closes  the  window  of  its  background.  Two  magnificent  por- 
traits, that  of  "  Luigi  Cornaro,"  by  Titian,  and  of  "  Cardinal  Benti- 
viglio,"  by  Vandyck,  are  among  the  gems  of  this  apartment.  An- 
drea del  Sarto's  "  Holy  Family,"  very  near  the  "  Seggiola,"  rivals  his 
masterpiece  in  the  Uffizi  Tribune.  Guide's  "  Rebecca  at  the  Well  " 
is  attractive  and  pastoral.  Guercino's  "  St.  Sebastian  "  is  the  most 
youthfully  beautiful  saint  ever  pierced  with  arrows,  and  well  con- 
trasts with  his  noble  and  venerable  "  Head  of  Moses."  Carlo  Doke's 
"Penitent  Peter"  is  absurdly  sentimental;  Luini's  "Magdalene," 
with  the  vase,  is  delicately  finished  in  the  style  of  Leonardo,  and 
richly  dressed.  Rubens's  "  Mars  going  forth  to  War,  with  Flames  and 
Destruction  before  Him,"  is  entirely  inferior  in  interest  to  his  excel- 
lent group  known  as  the  "  Four  Philosophers,"  but  more  correctly 
catalogued  as  the  portraits  of  himself,  his  brother,  and  the  scholars 
Lipsius  and  Grotius.  Nor  must  we  forget  to  notice  Allori's  chef- 
d'ceuvre,  an  imperious  and  brilliant  "  Judith  with  the  Head  of  Holo- 
fernes,"  in  which  tradition  tells  us  he  has  drawn  the  likeness  of  his 
capricious  mistress  named  Mazzafirra.  The  female  in  the  rear,  with 
the  bag,  is  the  maiden's  mother,  while  his  own  face  furnished  the 
model  for  the  severed  head  so  disdainfully  carried. 

In  the  Saloon  of  Apollo  we  perceive  another  admirable  picture  by 
Allori,  entitled  the  "  Hospitality-  of  St.  Julian,"  which,  however,  we 
scarcely  appreciate,  on  account  of  its  proximity  to  more  valuable 
works.  Three  of  Raphael's  portraits  are  sufficient  to  distract  our 
attention.  These  immortalize  his  friends  Angiolo  and  Maddalena 
Doni,  and  his  patron  Pope  Leo  X.,  attended  by  Cardinals  de  Medici 
and  de  Rossi.  A  copy  of  Raphael's  "  Madonna  of  the  Lizard,"  by 
Giulio  Romano,  is  also  interesting.  Turning  from  it  to  Titian's 
"  Magdalene,"  we  see  a  face  of  supreme  beauty,  yet  bold  and  con- 
scious in  spite  of  tearful  eyes  and  luxuriantly  falling  hair.  It  is  to  be 
feared  Titian  drew  but  little  moral  distinction  between  his  Magdalenes 
and  his  Yenuses.  A  "  Madonna,"  by  Murillo,  is  only  a  serious  but 
lovely  Spanish  mother  with  her  child.  A  "  Pieta/'  over  the  door,  by 


500 


APPENDIX. 


Fra  Bartolomeo,  is  touchingly  solemn  and  tender.  It  is  hung  oppo- 
site an  excellent  "  Descent  from  the  Cross,"  by  Andrea  del  Sarto, 
but  is  more  simple  and  mournful  in  grouping  and  expression.  Sev- 
eral fine  portraits  will  be  found  in  this  saloon,  such  as  Rembrandt's 
"  Likeness  of  Himself,"  Titian's  "  Head  of  Aretino,"  and  Paul  Vero- 
nese's "  Portrait  of  his  Wife,"  a  well-preserved,  ample  .majestic,  and 
good-natured  figure.  "  She  is  forty-eight  years  old,  double-chinned, 
has  the  air  of  a  court-dowager,  and  the  coiffure  of  a  poodle-dog,  and 
wears  a  black-velvet  robe,  cut  low  and  square  in  the  neck." 

The  adjacent  Saloon  of  Venus  has  little  of  any  special  value  ex- 
cept a  small  "  Marriage  of  St.  Catharine,"  by  Titian,  and  a  large  por- 
trait of  a  young  Venetian  lady,  superbly  dressed  in  dark  blue,  with 
golden  chains  and  slashed  sleeves,  called  Titian's  "Bella."  This, 
however,  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  "  Bella  Donna  "  of  the 
Sciarra  Palace,  Rome. 

In  the  remaining  saloons  of  the  gallery,  which  are  smaller  and  less 
important,  but  most  tastefully  arranged,  we  need  but  briefly  notice 
a  very  few  celebrated  paintings.  Raphael's  "  Madonna  del  Gran  Du- 
ca,"  in  the  Saloon  of  Education  of  Jupiter,  is  particularly  charming. 
She  is  standing,  with  the  Child  in  her  arms,  in  a  red  robe,  over  which 
falls  a  long  green  veil.  "  A  small  diaphanous  white  veil  covers  the 
fine  blond  hair  up  to  the  edge  of  the  brow.  Her  eyes  are  lowered  ; 
the  complexion  of  extreme  purity,  and  a  delicate  tint,  like  that  of  a 
wild-rose,  tinges  the  cheek."  Very  near  this  Madonna  is  Carlo  Dolce's 
"  St.  Andrew  adoring  his  Cross."  The  attitude  of  the  saint  is  de-. 
votional  and  expressive,  but  his  face  is  painfully  feminine  and  weak, 
and  the  blue  of  his  drapery  monotonously  intense.  A  "  Death  of 
Lucretia,"  by  Filippino  Lippi,  in  the  Saloon  of  Prometheus,  is  power- 
ful but  sensational;  an  "Adoration  of  the  Magi,"  by  Pinturrichio, 
gives  a  good  idea  of  the  complex  mediaeval  treatment  of  that  fasci- 
nating subject,  as  does  also  Ghirlandajo's  similar  painting  in  the 
same  apartment.  A  genuine  portrait  of  Oliver  Cromwell,  by  Peter 
Lely,  in  the  Saloon  of  Justice,  seems  curiously  out  of  place  in  a 
Florentine  palace.  Vandyck's  "  Repose  during  the  Flight  into 
Egypt  "  is  distinguished  for  its  graceful  and  sportive  angels  ;  while  a 
survey  of  some  of  Salvator  Rosa's  landscapes,  especially  "  The  For- 
est of  Philosophers,"  where  Diogenes  throws  away  his  drinking-cup 
as  a  superfluity,  may  fitly  close  our  inspection  of  the  beauties  and 
wonders  of  this  collection  of  the  Pitti. 


GALLERIES  OF  ROME.  SQI 

GALLERIES  OF   ROME. 

STRANGE  to  say,  Rome,  the  Mistress  of  Art,  is  quite  destitute  of 
any  extensive  picture-gallery.  Its  famous  paintings,  with  but  few 
shining  exceptions,  fresco  the  walls  and  adorn  the  altars  of  its  stately 
palaces  and  churches,  or  are  the  private  property  of  its  nobles  and 
princes.  Even  the  vast  old  palace  of  the  Vatican,  so  immense  in 
size  that  it  is  said  to  embrace  several  thousand  rooms  and  over 
two  hundred  staircases,  though  rich  in  antique  statuary,  fitly  shrined 
in  splendid  museums,  devotes  but  four  comparatively  bare  and  cheer- 
less apartments  to  its  collection  of  scarcely  more  than  forty  pictures. 
The  Stanze  of  Raphael,  with  their  immortal  frescoes,  form,  however, 
magnificent  entrance-chambers  to  these  apartments  whose  contents 
are  so  transcendent  in  quality  though  so  meagre  in  quantity. 

Priceless  altar-pieces  of  the  old  masters,  removed  from  the  church 
of  St.  Peter,  where  their  places  are  supplied  by  mosaic  copies,  became 
the  nucleus  of  this  present  Vatican  picture-gallery,  whose  foundation 
dates  only  from  the  year  1822.  After  the  restoration  of  the  treasures 
captured  by  the  French,  other  altar-pieces  and  gifts  to  modern  popes 
were  added.  The  world-renowned  "  Transfiguration  "  first  centres 
the  traveler's  attention,  and  becomes  the  goal  of  his  art-pilgrimage. 
This  great  work,  previously  described,  was,  as  we  know,  the  last 
proof  of  Raphael's  genius.  Its  principal  features  have  long  grown 
dear  to  us  through  engravings,  but  no  engraving  can  adequately  ren- 
jder  the  heavenly  expression  of  the  upraised  face  of  the  Saviour,  and 
the  visitor  must  avail  himself  of  all  possible  means,  step-ladders  in- 
cluded, to  study  it  closely  and  in  a  good  light.  Only  two  other  pict- 
ures are  thought  worthy  to  share  the  small  chamber  which  it  occu- 
pies— "The  Last  Communion  of  St.  Jerome,"  by  Domenichino,  and 
Raphael's  "  Madonna  of  Foligno,"  now  removed  from  wood  to  can- 
vas, and  slightly  injured  in  the  transfer. 

In  an  adjacent  room  we  perceive  "The  Coronation  "  and  "As- 
sumption of  the  Virgin,"  one  executed  by  Raphael  in  his  youth,  the 
other  finished  by  his  pupils.  "  Here  we  have  the  tomb  below,  filled 
with  flowers,  and  around  it  the  apostles.  St.  Thomas,  in  the  back- 
ground, is  holding  the  girdle.  Above  is  the  throne,  set  in  heaven, 
whereon  the  Virgin,  mild  and  beautiful,  sits  beside  her  divine  Son, 
and,  with  joined  hands  and  veiled  head,  bends  to  receive  the  golden 
coronet  he  is  about  to  place  on  her  brow.  Eight  seraphim  hover 


502  APPENDIX. 

above  her.  On  the  right  a  most  graceful  angel  strikes  the  tam- 
bourine ;  on  the  left,  another  sounds  the  viol ;  and,  amid  a  flood  of 
light,  hosts  of  celestial  and  rejoicing  spirits  fill  up  the  background." 
The  predella  of  this  composition,  with  small,  finely-wrought  scenes 
of  the  "Annunciation,"  the  "Adoration  of  the  Magi,"  and  the 
"Presentation  in  the  Temple,"  will  be  found  not  far  off.  Another 
predella,  originally  painted  mgrisazlleby  Raphael  for  "  The  Entomb- 
ment," now  in  the  Borghese,  delineates  "  Faith,  Hope,  and  Char- 
ity," but  suffers  by  separation  from  the  altar-piece  to  which  it  belongs. 
Perugino,  Raphael's  master,  is  favorably  represented  by  a  "Resur- 
rection," where  one  of  the  slumbering  guards  is  said  to  be  the  por- 
trait of  his  illustrious  pupil,  and  also  by  a  "  Group  of  Saints  "  and 
an  excellent  "  Enthroned  Madonna  attended  by  the  Patron  Saints  of 
Perugia."  Among  the  works  of  other  ancient  and  eminent  artists,  we 
may  observe  Fra  Angelico's  "  Scenes  from  the  Life  of  St.  Nicholas 
of  Bari;"  Andrea  Mantegna's  "Pieta;"  a  "  Madonna  with  St.  Je- 
rome," by  Francia;  the  "Crucifixion  of  Christ,"  and  "Coronation 
of  the  Virgin,"  by  Niccolo  Alunno,  very  brown  and  venerable  in 
appearance,  with  angels  holding  their  chalices  to  catch  the  sacred 
blood  ;  Benozzo  Gozzoli's  little  predella  of  the  "  Miracles  of  St.  Hya- 
cinth," the  Dominican  saint  who  walked  over  Russian  rivers  as  over 
dry  land,  with  the  consecrated  pyx  and  the  image  of  the  Virgin ;  a 
sketch  of  "  St.  Jerome,"  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci ;  and  a  "  Dead  Christ," 
by  Carlo  Crivelli. 

A  "  Christ  in  Glory,"  once  supposed  to  be  by  Correggio,  but  evi- 
dently not  genuine,  is  a  half-nude  figure,  with  outspread  arms,  seated 
between  angels,  on  a  rainbow.  Titian's  "Virgin,"  enthroned  upon 
the  clouds  of  heaven,  usually  known  as  "St.  Sebastian,"  from  the 
arrow-pierced  saint  who  stands  below  among  her  votaries,  is  a  su- 
perb example  of  strong  yet  harmonious  coloring.  His  portrait  of 
a  Doge  of  Venice,  robed  in  yellow,  is  sometimes  ascribed  to  Tinto- 
retto. The  Venetian  school  is  evidently  unappreciated  at  the  Vati- 
can, though  a  "  Vision  of  St.  Helena,"  by  Paul  Veronese ;  a  "  Ma- 
donna with  Saints,"  by  Bonifazio ;  and  Moretto's  "  Madonna  with 
Sts.  Jerome  and  Bartholomew,"  may  be  added  to  the  paintings  by 
Titian. 

Among  the  remains  of  the  Bolognese  school  are  a  pale  but  ten- 
der "Magdalene,"  a  "St.  John  Baptist,"  and  "Incredulity  of  St. 
Thomas,"  by  Guercino,  and  Guide's  "Crucifixion  of  St.  Peter." 


GALLERIES  OF  ROME.  -o- 

This  composition  of  only  three  figures,  the  apostle  and  two  execu- 
tioners, painted  after  the  manner  of  Caravaggio,  was  much  admired 
in  its  day,  and  procured  its  author  the  commission  for  the  fresco  of 
"  Aurora  "  in  Palazzo  Rospigliosi.  Caravaggio's  own  masterpiece, 
a  powerful  but  coarse  "Entombment,"  with  brigand-like  heads,  and 
weird,  wild  Virgin,  likewise  finds  its  place  in  this  gallery.  A  "  Vision 
of  St.  Romualdo  and  his  Disciples,"  by  Andrea  Sacchi,  master  of 
Carlo  Maratta,  is  devotional  and  noble  in  expression,  with  well-ar- 
ranged masses  of  white  drapery.  Sacchi  has  also  a  "  Mass  of  St. 
Gregory."  Melozzo  da  Forli's  fresco  of  "Pope  Sixtus  IV.,"  trans- 
ferred from  the  library  of  the  Vatican,  is  interesting  from  its  portrait 
figures;  and  a  "Madonna  and  Child,"  by  Sassoferrato — the  moon 
beneath  their  feet,  the  Child  wearing  what  seems  to  be  a  red-eoral 
necklace — is  very  sweet  and  graceful  in  look  and  gesture.  A  "-St.. 
Michelina  in  Ecstasy "  is  considered  by  critics  the  finest  work  of 
Baroccio,  the  leading  artist  of  the  Roman  decadence,  of  whose  abili- 
ties we  may  also  judge  in  an  "  Annunciation "  which  has  been 
copied  in  mosaic. 

France  and  Spain  are  represented  by  the  largest  works  of  Valen- 
tin and  Poussin  ;  "Martyrdoms,"  which  are  copied  in  mosaic  for. one 
of  the  altars  of  St.  Peter's ;  and  by  three  paintings  of  Murillo,  known 
as  the  "  Adoration  of  the  Shepherds,"  "  Marriage  of  St.  Catharine," 
and  "  Return  of  the  Prodigal."  The  last  is  the  most  interesting. 
These  were  presented  to  Pius  IX.  by  Queen  Isabella  of  Spain,  and 
are  the  latest  contributions  to  the  pictures  of  the  Vatican. 

The  Gallery  of  the  Capitol,  so  renowned  for  its  busts  of  the  Ro- 
man emperors,  "  Dying  Gladiator,"  "  Antinous,"  and  other  wonderful 
statues,  is  very  deficient  in  great  paintings.  It  outnumbers,,  indeed, 
the  collection  of  the  Vatican,  but  is  infinitely  less  precious  in  value. 
We  cannot  here  seek  any  masterpieces  of  the  earlier  centuries,  un- 
less we  count  as  such  a  few  enthroned  Virgins  or  Madonnas  with 
the  Child,  ascribed,  often  without  satisfactory  evidence,  to  Peru- 
gino,  Pinturrichio,  Botticelli,  or  Fra  Bartolomeo.  A  "  St..  Augustine/' 
"St.  Sebastian,"  and  "St.  Bernard,"  are  also  attributed  to  Gian 
Bellini. 

The  chef-deeuvre  of  the  gallery  is  the  "  Resurrection;  of  St.  Pe- 
tronilla,"  by  Guercino,  of  Bologna.  This  is  a.  large  and  excellent 
work,  varied  and  grand  in  detail,  and  rich,  though  sombre,  in  color- 
ing. It  is  divided  into  two  parts.  First,  we  have  the  earth  beneath, 
33 


5°4 


APPENDIX. 


where  several  grave-diggers  are  exhuming  the  body  of  Petronilla, 
daughter  of  St.  Peter,  who  has  been  buried  alive  by  her  persecutors. 
The  process  is  watched  by  spectators,  among  whom  is  her  youth- 
ful lover  in  cap  and  plume,  and  gay  and  fashionable  raiment.  Above 
»s  the  open  heaven,  where  Christ  is  seated  on  the  clouds,  among  min- 
istering angels,  in  the  act  of  welcoming  the  ascending  saint,  to  whom 
a  cherub  brings  a  crown.  A  "  Cleopatra  before  Augustus,"  a  "  St. 
John  Baptist,"  and  the  beautiful  "  Persian  Sibyl,"  further  display 
the  genius  of  Guercino,  the  "Magician  of  Painting."  A  "  St.  Sebas- 
tian," a  "  Redeemed  Spirit,"  a  "  Magdalene,"  and  a  portrait  of  him- 
self, by  Guido  Reni,  are  pleasing  but  less  powerful.  "  The  Cumaean 
Sibyl,"  by  Domenichino,  is  a  repetition  of  the  fine  original  in  the 
Borghese  Palace,  weakened  by  a  second  rendering. 

As  a  repetition,  however,  nothing  could  be  more  agreeable  than 
Paul  Veronese's  charming  "  Rape  of  Europa,"  whose  proper  home 
is  in  the  Ducal  Palace,  Venice.  Europa  is  magnificently  dressed, 
and  of  very  full  proportions ;  the  white  bull  proudly  bears  his  bur- 
den, and  the  gayety  and  luxuriance  of  the  whole  surrounding  scene 
leave  a  most  cheerful  impression  upon  the  mind  of  the  beholder. 
Titian  has  also  repeated  his  favorite  subject  of  the  "  Adulteress  be- 
fore Christ,"  while  a  "  Baptism  of  Christ,"  with  his  own  portrait 
introduced  among  the  spectators,  is  generally  attributed  to  him. 
Tintoretto  has  contributed  a  "  Crowning  with  Thorns,"  a  "  Flag- 
ellation," and  a  "Magdalene,"  which  contrasts  with  the  more 
sentimental  Magdalenes  of  Guido,  Albani,  and  Carracci.  An 
"  Ascension "  and  "  Virgin  with  Angels,"  by  Veronese,  and  a 
"  Christ  in  the  House  of  Simon,"  by  Bassano,  are  in  the  second 
apartment. 

Garofalo,  the  artist  of  Ferrara,  rightly  named  BenvenUto  Tisio, 
has  several  excellent  works,  soft  in  finish  and  of  delicate  beauty. 
A  "  St.  Catharine,"  from  his  brush,  was  once  attributed  to  Cor- 
reggio ;  and  his  "  Madonnas,"  "  Annunciation,"  and  "  St.  Lucy,"  are 
all  deserving  of  praise.  In  his  "Virgin  in  Glory"  he  has  some- 
what varied  the  conventional  treatment  by  introducing  an  extended 
landscape,  in  which  two  Fra'nciscan  friars  are  walking.  The  "  For- 
narina,"  and  a  "  Judith,"  by  Giulio  Romano  ;  a  "  Holy  Family,"  by 
Mantegna ;  two  "  Madonnas  "  and  a  "  St.  Cecilia,"  by  Annibale  Car- 
racci ;  a  "  St.  Sebastian,"  by  Lodovico  Carracci;  and  a  "Gypsy,"  by 
Caravaggio,  should  likewise  be  noticed.  A  portrait  of  Michael  An- 


GALLERIES  OF  ROME.  5OS 

gelo,  probably  taken  from  life  by  one  of  his  pupils,  brings  him  before 
us  older  and  more  severe  in  expression  than  in  the  head  at  Florence. 
Several  compositions  by  Pietro  da  Cortona,  a  mediocre  but  at  one 
time  popular  Florentine  artist,  may  end  the  catalqgue  of  the  more 
celebrated  paintings  of  the  Italian  schools. 

Very  little  foreign  element  will  be  found  either  to  admire  or  criti- 
cise. An  "  Orpheus  "  and  "  Flora  "  are  works  of  Poussin.  A  sunny 
landscape  is  catalogued  as  a  Claude  Lorraine.  An  unknown  portrait 
is  ascribed  to  Velasquez  ;  and  a  few  others,  more  attractive  in  their 
traits,  are  from  the  brush  of  Vandyck.  A  "Romulus  and  Remus," 
by  Rubens,  was  doubtless  chosen  from  the  appropriateness  of  the 
subject.  Its  best  point  is  the  wolf,  which  may  be  considered  a 
fitting  companion  for  the  ancient  wolf  of  bronze  preserved  in  the 
Capitol. 

Private  Galleries. — Among  the  noble  private  collections  of  Rome, 
to  which  the  public  are  readily  admitted,  may  be  particularly  mentioned 
the  galleries  of  the  Borghese,  Corsini,  Doria,  Sciarra,  Barberini,  and 
Colonna  Palaces.  The  catalogues  belonging  to  these  palaces  cannot 
always  be  relied  upon,  as  they  generally  ignore  all  doubts  of  the 
authenticity  of  their  favorite  pictures.  But  the  genuineness  of  the 
most  important  works  has  been  settled  by  searching  criticism.  The 
stranger  will  be  well  repaid  by  a  visit  to  all  these  edifices.  He  will 
find  in  the  Barberini  Raphael's  "  Fornarina,"  by  the  side  of  Guide's 
"  Beatrice  Cenci ; "  and  in  the  Doria  some  exquisite  landscapes  by 
Claude  Lorraine  ;  the  portrait  of  Andrea  Doria,  by  Sebastian  del  Pi- 
ombo ;  a  portrait  of  Pope  Innocent  X.,  by  Velasquez ;  "  Bartolus 
and  Baldus,"  by  Raphael ;  "Money-Changers,"  by  Quintin  Matsys  ; 
and  a  "Sacrifice  of  Isaac,"  long  considered  a  splendid  work,  by 
Titian,  but  now  regarded  as  the  composition  of  Gerbrandt  van  der 
Eckhout,  a  pupil  of  Rembrandt.  The  Sciarra  Palace  (not  always 
accessible)  boasts  of  Raphael's  "Violin- Player,"  Titian's  or  Palma 
Vecchio's  "Bella  Donna,"  Luini's  "Vanity  and  Modesty,"  a  fine 
"  Magdalene,"  by  Guido,  and  Caravaggio's  "  Gamblers."  Guide's 
lovely  "  Aurora "  is  frescoed  on  the  ceiling  of  the  garden-house 
belonging  to  Palace  Rospigliosi ;  but  the  most  complete  assemblage 
of  pictures  in  Rome  is  in  the  Borghese  Gallery,  which  has  gathered, 
in  twelve  fine  apartments,  a  collection  of  several  hundred  paintings. 
The  most  celebrated  of  these  are  "  The  Entombment,"  by  Raphael ;  a 
"  Danae,"  by  Correggio ;  and  "  Sacred  and  Profane  Love,"  by  Titian. 


5o6  APPENDIX. 

"  The  Entombment,"  one  of  Raphael's  most  youthful  altar-pieces, 
was  executed  on  wood  for  the  Franciscan  church  of  Perugia.  It  is 
large  but  not  immense  in  size,  and  crowded  with  figures.  "  On  the 
left,  the  body  of  the  Saviour  is  borne  to  the  grave  by  two  men,  with 
great  energy  of  action.  Next  to  the  body  are  Mary  Magdalene,  Peter, 
and  John,  variously  expressing  the  deepest  sympathy.  On  the  right, 
supported  by  women,  the  Madonna  sinks  down  fainting." 

Correggio's  "Danae"  is  a  slender  female  form,  reclining  on  a 
rich  couch.  "  Love,  a  beautiful  youth,  sits  beside  her,  and  catches  the 
golden  rain-drops  in  her  drapery.  Two  amortni  in  front  are  em- 
ployed, with  graceful  naivete,  in  sharpening  an  arrow."  These  little 
Cupids  are  great  favorites  with  copyists,  and  are  often  engraved  and 
painted  quite  separate  from  the  remainder  of  the  picture. 

Titian's  "Sacred  and  Profane  Love"  has  all  the  glow  of  Vene- 
tian coloring,  as  well  as  much  beauty  of  attitude  and  expression. 
But  there  seems  no  particular  reason  for  such  an  allegorical  title, 
neither  is  it  easy  to  determine  which  character  is  meant  to  be  divine 
and  which  earthly.  "  A  fine  landscape  is  bounded  on  the  right  by  a- 
village  and  lake,  and  on  the  left  by  a  mountain-castle. .  In  the  fore- 
ground is  a  fountain,  near  which  two  female  figures  are  seated,  one 
richly  dressed  and  holding  flowers  in  her  gloved  hand ;  the  other, 
with  only  a  red  scarf  over  her  shoulder,  with  a  cup  or  small  drink- 
ing-vessel  in  her  left  hand.  Between  the  two  a  young  Cupid  ap- 
pears to  be  reaching  after  some  flowers  which  have  dropped  into  the 
fountain." 

When  our  examination  of  these  masterpieces  is  ended,  and  we 
come  to  study  the  rooms  in  detail,  we  discover  that  they  are  arranged 
in  reference  to  the  different  schools,  beginning  with  the  productions 
of  the  pupils  and  followers  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  These  are  deli- 
cately finished,  with  the  smoothness,  suppleness,  arid  softness  of 
outline  so  characteristic  of  the  Lombard  school.  A  boyish  "  Head 
of  Christ  "  and  a  lovely  "  Madonna  "  face  are  especially  deserving  of 
attention;  also  a  pure  and  tender  "Holy  Family,"  by  Lorenzo  di 
Credi;  and  a  stiff  but  sweet  little  portrait  of  "Raphael  as  a  Child," 
by  his  fellow-townsman,  Timoteo  della  Vite,  of  Urbino.  This  por- 
trait is  ascribed  by  other  critics  to  the  Florentine  painter  Ridolfo 
Ghirlandajo. 

A  "  St.  Stephen,"  by  Francia,  and  a  few  good  copies  of  some  of 
Raphael's  best  compositions,  are  hung  in  the  second  room,  especially 


GALLERIES  OF  ROME.  -O7 

"Pope  Julius  II.,"  "The  Fornarina,"  " Madonna  of  Divine  Love," 
and  "  Madonna  di  Casa  d'Alba."  "  The  Entombment"  is  placed  in 
this  apartment,  and  may  thus  be  conveniently  viewed.  Not  far  from 
it  we  see  an  interesting  portrait,  catalogued  as  "  Csesar  Borgia,  by 
Raphael."  Hillard  speaks  of  it  as  the  face  of  a  "handsome,  smil- 
ing, seductive,  and  unscrupulous  man,"  and  Viardot  calls  it  "a 
young  Nero  ;  "  but  later  disclosures  reveal  the  fact  that  it  is  not  the 
likeness  of  Caesar  Borgia,  nor  was  it  ever  painted  by  Raphael.  Garo- 
falo  is  here  shown  to  excellent  advantage  in  the  "  Dead  Christ,"  his 
masterpiece,  and  in  a  "Conversion  of  St.  Paul,"  and  "Madonna 
with  Saints."  • 

Quite  a  number  of  pictures  attributed  to  Andrea  del  Sarto,  in  the 
third  apartment,  please  us  by  their  richness  of  color  and  grace  of 
attitude,  but  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  assert  that  they  are  the  work 
of  his  pupils,  and  that  he  only  furnished  the  designs.  "  The  Scourg- 
ing of  Christ,"  by  Sebastian  del  Piombo,  is  a  reduced  repetition  of 
his  great  fresco  in  the  church  of  San  Pietro  Montorio.  A  "  Por- 
trait," by  Parmagiano,  reminds  us  of  Correggio's  excellences.  Dosso 
Dossi's  "  Circe "  sits,  sumptuously  draped,  in  a  woody  landscape. 
"  At  her  feet  are  a  magic  circle,  a  coat  of  mail,  a  dog,  and  two  birds. 
Near  her  are  several  little  hags  bound  to  a  tree ;  at  a  distance  are 
three  knights  bivouacking  on  the  grass."  Carlo  Dolce's  "  Madonna 
and  Child  "  has  the  mannered  but  sweet  expression  for  which  he  is 
renowned,  while  a  painting  of  "The  Risen  Christ,"  by  Alessandro 
Allori,  a  late  and  inferior  artist,  was  once  strangely  mistaken  for  the 
work  of  Michael  Angelo. 

Several  adjoining  rooms  are  devoted  to  the  productions  of  the 
Bolognese  school,  with  some  such  exceptions  as  occasional  "  Ma- 
donnas "  by  Sassoferrato,  a  copy  of  Titian's  "Three  Periods  of  Life," 
and  a  few  dark  and  wild  efforts  of  the  Naturalist!,  as  Caravaggio's 
"  Holy  Family,"  and  Ribera's  "  Neptune  "  and  "  St.  Jerome."  Among 
the  most  distinguished  of  the  Bolognese  pictures  are  Domenichino's 
"Cumaean  Sibyl,"  a  grand,  red-draped  figure,  with  parted  lips  ex- 
pressive of  rapt  inspiration  ;  and  Domenichino's  "  Diana  and  her 
Nymphs,"  a  larger  mythological  composition,  where  the  goddess 
stands,  with  bow  and  arrow,  in  the  centre  of  the  landscape,  watch- 
ing her  attendant  maids,  who  are  bathing,  shooting,  or  sporting. 
Albani  has  a  series  of  classical  landscapes  known  as  "  The  Four  Sea- 
sons ;  "  his  pupil,  Francisco  Mola,  has  left  a  "  Liberation  of  St.  Peter." 


508  APPENDIX. 

Guercino's  "Mater  Dolorosa"and  "Return  of  the  Prodigal  "  are 
pleasingly  and  expressively  rendered.  Nothing  by  the  Carracci  has 
much  attraction  except  an  "  Entombment,"  or  Dead  Christ  sup- 
ported by  his  Mother  and  mourned  by  two  lamenting  boy-angels. 

Farther  saloons  are  filled  with  works  of  Venetian  artists,  among 
which  are  Titian's  "Sacred  and  Profane  Love,"  and  "Equipment 
of  Cupid,"  sometimes  styled  "  The  Three  Graces."  "  Venus  is  bind- 
ing Cupid's  eyes,  while  another  amorino  is  leaning  over  her  shoulder, 
and  two  Graces  bring  the  bow  and  quiver."  A  "  St.  Dominic  "  and 
"  Samson  "  are  also  marked  as  Titians,  and  a  "  Return  of  the  Prodi- 
gal Son,"  by  Bonifazio,  was  long  believed  to  be  from  the  brush 
of  the  same  great  master.  A  "Judith,"  by  some  unknown  painter, 
is  supposed  to  be  the  likeness  of  Titian's  early-lost  wife.  Some 
admirable  portraits  by  Gian  Bellini,  Moroni,  and  Pordenone,  repre- 
sent that  department  of  Venetian  excellence.  Pordenone's  "  Family 
Group"  is  peculiarly  interesting.  A  "Madonna,"  executed  in  the 
youth  of  Gian  Bellini,  and  a  "  Holy  Family,"  by  Palma  Vecchio,  with 
very  beautiful  and  dignified  saints,  should  also  be  examined ;  but 
Paul  Veronese's  '"  St.  John  preaching  Repentance,"  and  "  St.  An- 
thony preaching  to  the  Fishes,"  are  only  remarkable  for  effects  of 
color. 

The  last  apartment  contains  principally  German,  Dutch,  and  Flem- 
ish paintings,  none  of  which  are  of  extraordinary  worth,  except  Van- 
dyck's  "Entombment"  and  "  Crucifixion,"  in  the  latter  of  which  a 
serpent  twines  round  the  base  of  the  cross.  A  "  Lot  and  his  Daugh- 
ters," by  Gerard  Honthorst ;  "  Venus  and  Cupid,"  by  Lucas  Cranach  ; 
a  genre  scene,  by  Teniers ;  and  other  pieces  ddubtfully  ascribed  to 
Holbein,  Potter,  Backhuysen,  or  obscurer  artists,  are  sufficient  to  con- 
vince us  that  few  rays  of  Northern  genius  have  penetrated  south  of 
the  Alps. 

Still  another  large  gallery  may  be  visited  in  the  Corsini  Palace, 
whose  spacious  apartments  display  a  host  of  pictures  tastefully  chosen 
and  arranged.  None  are  so  valuable  as  the  gems  of  the  Borghese  ; 
but  many  are  interesting  and  above  mediocrity.  They  are  not  hung 
in  any  particular  order,  but  exhibit  a  mixture  of  all  the  schools.  A 
thoughtful  but  earthly  "  Madonna  and  Child,"  by  Murillo  ;  a  "  Daugh- 
ter of  Herodias,"  by  Guido  Reni ;  and  a  Madonna  bending  above  the 
sleeping  Child,  by  Carlo  Dolce,  are  among  the  most  celebrated.  The 
latter  work  is  an  extremely  pleasing  and  popular  composition,  and 


GALLERIES  OF  ROME.  _OQ 

0     7 

stands  upon  an  easel,  framed  under  glass ;  as  does  also  a  beautiful 
little  "Nativity,"  by  Battoni.  An  "Ecce  Homo,"  by  Carlo  Dolce, 
is  far  less  agreeable,  and  is  inferior  to  those  by  Guido  and  Guercino 
which  hang  near  it. 

Other  Italian  pictures  deserving  special  attention  may  be  briefly 
enumerated  as  follows:  A  large  "Pieta,"  of  powerful  pathos,  by 
Lodovico  Carracci ;  a  portrait  of  "  Philip  II.  of  Spain,"  by  Titian  ;  a 
good  copy  of  Raphael's  "Pope  Julius  II.,"  and  a  repetition  of 
the  "  Fornarina  ;  "  "  Christ  and  Mary  Magdalene,"  by  Federigo  Ba- 
roccio;  an  "Annunciation,"  by  Carlo  Maratta ;  a  "Holy  Family," 
by  Giorgio  Vasari,  author  of  "  Lives  of  the  Painters ; "  a  "  Holy 
Family,"  taken  from  a  drawing  of  Michael  Angelo,  by  his  pupil 
Venusti ;  a  portrait  of  Cardinal  Farnese,  ascribed  to  Titian ;  three 
small  panels  of  the  "  Last  Judgment,"  "  Ascension,"  and  "  Descent 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,"  by  Fra  Angelico ;  a  "  Contemplation,"  by  Guido 
Reni ;  a  "St.  Jerome,"  by  Guercino,  and  another  by  Ribera;  a 
"  St.  Agnes,"  and  "  St.  Apollonia,"  by  Carlo  Dolce  ;  a  "  Jesus  in  the 
Temple,"  by  Luca  Giordano  ;  and  a  "  Prometheus  "  and  two  "  Bat- 
tle-Scenes," by  Salvator  Rosa. 

The  Dutch  and  Germans  are  poorly  represented  in  the  Corsini,  as 
in  most  Italian  palaces.  It  owns,  however,  a  fine  sunset  land- 
scape, by  Jan  Both  ;  an  "  Interior,"  by  Teniers;  a  portrait,  by  Hol- 
bein ;  an  aged  female  head,  by  Rembrandt ;  a  portrait,  by  Rubens ; 
other  portraits,  by  Vandyck;  and  the  likeness  of  a  cardinal,  once 
supposed  to  be  from  the  hand  of  Albrecht  Diirer. 

Landscapes  by  Nicolas  Poussin  and  Caspar  Dughet  will  also  be 
found  in  the  gallery ;  but  the  works  of  the  latter  artist  are  best  appre- 
ciated in  the  Doria  Palace.  The  eleven  small  military  scenes  attrib- 
uted to  the  French  Callot  are  not  considered  genuine,  but  are,  nev- 
ertheless, interesting  and  minutely  finished. 

The  churches  of  Rome  are  full  of  magnificent  frescoes  and  altar- 
pieces,  descriptions  of  which  may  be  read  in  ordinary  guide-books. 
Those  which  the  traveler  should  by  no  means  fail  to  see  are  the 
ancient  mosaics  of  the  great  basilicas ;  the  early  Christian  frescoes 
in  the  old  church  of  San  Clemente  ;  Giotto's  fresco  of  "  Pope  Boni- 
face VIII.  proclaiming  the  Jubilee"  (remarkable  only  for  its  age),  in 
San  Giovanni  in  Laterano ;  the  mosaic  "  Navicella  "  of  St.  Peter's  ; 
Michael  Angelo's  "Last  Judgment,"  in  the  Sistine  Chapel;  Ra- 
phael's "Sibyls,"  in  Santa  Maria  della  Pace,  together  with  his 


5 10  APPENDIX. 

"  Prophet  Isaiah,"  in  San  Agostino ;  Sebastian  del  Piombo's  "  Scourg- 
ing of  Christ,"  in  San  Pietro  in  Montorio  ;  and  Guido's  and  Domeni- 
chino's rival  frescoes  in  the  chapel  of  St.  Andrew  attached  to  the  old 
church  of  San  Gregorio.  Add  to  these  the  frescoed  cupola  of  San 
Andrea  della  Valle  ;  the  altar-piece  of  the  "  Archangel  Michael,"  by 
Guido,  in  the  church  of  the  Capuchins;  Guido's  "Crucifixion,"  in 
San  Lorenzo  in  Lucina ;  Volterra's  "Descent  from  the  Cross,"  in 
Santa  Trinita  de  Monti ;  and  Domenichino's  "  Martyrdom  of  St.  Se- 
bastian," in  Santa  Maria  degli  Angeli. 

St.  Peter's  Church  contains  scarcely  any  paintings,  properly  so 
called ;  but  is  richly  adorned  with  colossal  mosaic  copies  of  such 
famous  pictures  as  Raphael's  "  Transfiguration,"  Domenichino's 
"Last  Communion  of  St.  Jerome,"  Guido's  "Archangel  Michael," 
Guercino's  "  Burial  of  St.  Petronilla,"  and  many  others — so  won- 
derfully executed  that  they  accord  far  better  with  the  vast  propor- 
tions of  the  edifice  than  could  any  perishable  creations  of  the  artist's 
brush. 

THE  GALLERY  OF  VENICE. 

THE  Gallery  of  Venice  is  a  feast  of  color,  and  a  dream  of  artistic 
beauty.  You  glide  to  it  in  a  gondola,  with  the  Grand  Canal  before 
you,  and  the  decaying  architecture  of  the  Renaissance  round  :  you 
enter  its  cloister,  ascend  its  somewhat  dingy  staircase  and  corridors, 
and  at  last  emerge  into  the  long  succession  of  spacious  rooms  whose 
grave  quiet  is  in  strange  contrast  with  the  glowing  paintings  on  the 
walls,  and  the  vivid  figures,  with  their  sumptuous  draperies  and  warm 
flesh-tints,  who  gaze  upon  you  from  the  canvas.  Here  is  the  home  of 
Titian,  and  the  luxury  which  Veronese  delighted  to  honor.  Here  is 
magnificence  fit  for  a  doge's  eye,  and  splendor  enough  to  soften  a 
critic's  heart. 

Not  that  one  sees  all  this  in  the  visible  building,  for  it  is  no  palace, 
but  an  ancient  "  Scuola  della  Carita,"  yet  there  is  not  a  gallery  in 
Europe  where  the  pictures  are  so  perfectly  in  accordance  with  the 
whole  charm  and  atmosphere  of  the  place.  Venetian  artists  painted 
Venice  and  Venetian  life,  and  you  behold  the  brilliant  history  spread 
before  you.  Venerable  doges  sit  upon  their  pictured  thrones,  or  are 
presented  by  St.  Mark  to  benign  virgins ;  St.  Mark,  the  patron  of 
the  republic,  pervades  every  corner  with  his  presence;  gay  revelers 


THE   GALLERY  OF   VENICE.  5II 

look  down  from  their  banquets  in  fadeless  loveliness ;  saints  are  calm 
and  dignified,  but  not  austere ;  Madonnas  are  ever  tender,  and  angels 
ever  fair. 

From  the  direction  in  which  one  usually  enters,  the  first  picture  to 
strike  the  eye  is  Titian's  large  and  graphic  "  Presentation  of  the 
Virgin,"  an  immense  composition,  whose  sacred  subject  the  great 
artist  has  adapted  not  only  to  his  own  style  but  to  his  own  surround- 
ings. There  is  a  temple,  far  from  Judean  in  architecture,  at 
whose  entrance  the  expectant  high-priest,  a  grand,  majestic  figure, 
awaits  the  child- Virgin  who  ascends  the  steps,  all  robed  in  blue,  with 
her  flaxen  hair  braided  quaintly  down  her  back.  The  throng  of 
monks  and  maidens  who  come  behind  is  quite  Italian — you  might  see 
them  any  day  in  the  streets  of  Venice ;  the  landscape  of  the  back- 
ground is  not  less  Italian ;  while  the  old  woman  selling  eggs  beside 
the  temple-steps  has  been  even  said  to  be  the  portrait  of  Titian's 
mother.  Mrs.  Jameson  observes  that  the  number  of  portrait-heads 
greatly  adds  to  the  interest.  "  Titian  himself  is  looking  up,  and  near 
him  stands  his  friend  Andrea  di  Franceschi,  Grand-Chancellor  of 
Venice,  dressed  as  a  cavalier  of  San  Marco.  In  the  fine  bearded 
head  of  the  priest  who  stands  behind  the  high-priest  we  may  recog- 
nize, I  think,  Cardinal  Bembo."  Hawthorne,  in  his  Italian  tour, 
speaks  enthusiastically  of  this  picture,  and  of  the  pleasure  with  which 
he  viewed  it. 

The  "  Saints  and  Virgins  "  of  Pordenone,  Titian's  rival,  which 
hang  in  the  same  apartment,  do  not  look  as  if  it  had  cost  Titian 
much  trouble  to  distance  his  competitor.  Paris  Bordone's  master- 
piece of  the  "  Fisherman  bringing  to  the  Doge  the  Ring  received  from 
St.  Mark,"  is  very  national  in  sentiment  and  dramatic  in  action.  It 
commemorates  a  legend  which  tells  us  how  a  great  tempest  rose,  in 
the  fourteenth  century,  through  the  malice  of  angry  demons,  which 
was  only  stilled  by  the  patron  saints,  Mark,  and  George,  and  Nicho- 
las, who  commanded  a  terrified  fisherman  to  row  them  across  the 
raging  waters  that  they  might  instantly  calm  the  storm.  When  they 
left  his  little  boat  they  gave  him  no  reward,  but  sent  him  to  relate  the 
miracle  and  to  demand  payment  from  the  doge.  Should  the  doge 
and  council  refuse  to  listen,  he  was  to  show  them  a  sacred  ring,  usu- 
ally guarded  in  a  sanctuary,  but  now  intrusted  to  him  by  St.  Mark  in 
token  that  he  spoke  the  truth.  Bordone  has  chosen  the  moment 
when  the  fisherman  kneels  in  the  marble  hall  of  state  to  present  the 


5I2  APPENDIX. 

doge  with  the  holy  ring.  Carpaccio's  "  Presentation  of  the  Infant 
Christ  to  Simeon  "  is  perfectly  Venetian  in  manner,  with  sumptuous 
architectural  background,  and  a  high-priest  so  stately,  mild,  and  dig- 
nified, that  you  cannot  but  feel  how  favorable  the  air  and  spirit  of 
Venice  must  have  been  to  ripe  and  honored  old  age.  Bonifazio,  an 
artist  who  here  appears  at  his  best,  has  some  fine  paintings,  espe- 
cially the  "  Banquet  of  Dives,"  "  Christ  and  the  Apostles,"  and  the 
"Adoration  of  the  Magi,"  a  subject  of  which  he  was  peculiarly 
fond.  As  you  stand  in  the  centre  of  the  room,  looking  down  the  vista 
of  the  gallery,  you  are  startled  by  a  picture,  at  the  end  of  the  next  hall, 
so  well  placed  and  so  astonishing  in  perspective  that  it  seems  to  open 
before  you  the  splendor  of  a  real  palace  and  a  real  feast,  with  its  life- 
like guests  and  servants,  its  sunny,  transparent  atmosphere,  its  col- 
umns and  staircase.  This  is  Paul  Veronese's  famous  "  Feast  in  the 
House  of  Levi,"  which  might  have  been  studied  from  the  home  of  a 
Venetian  noble. 

On  the  sides  of  the  apartment  which  it  adorns  one  perceives  a 
series  of  immense  compositions — the  Venetians  did  every  thing  on  so 
broad  and  ample  a  scale  ! — executed  in  the  fifteenth  century.  On 
the  left  are  Carpaccio's  quaint  and  entertaining  illustrations  of  the 
legend  of  St.  Ursula  and  her  eleven  thousand  virgins.  Another  pict- 
ure by  Carpaccio  of  the  "  Massacre  of  Ten  Thousand  Christians  upon 
Mount  Ararat  "  is  very  pre-Raphaelite  in  its  delineation  of  horrors. 
On  the  entrance-wall  is  an  extraordinary  specimen  of  art  by  Gentile 
Bellini,  representing  the  miraculous  "  Finding  of  a  Piece  of  the  True 
Cross  "  which  had  fallen  into  the  canal.  The  priests,  in  full  canoni- 
cals, are  wading  about  like  mermaids ;  crowds  of  spectators,  who 
throng  arcades  and  balconies,  watch  the  proceeding  with  solemn 
faces,  and  hands  in  the  proper  attitude  of  devotion :  at  last  one  of 
the  fathers  of  the  Church  has  discovered  the  fragment,  all  nicely 
mounted,  and  is  triumphantly  swimming  ashore.  On  the  right  wall 
Gentile  Bellini  has  also  left  us  a  "  Grand  Procession  in  the  Piazza  of 
San  Marco,"  showing  us  how  all  things  looked  in  1491.  These 
brothers,  Gian  and  Gentile  Bellini,  inaugurated  the  triumphs  of  Vene- 
tian painting,  and  examples  of  their  works  are  therefore  of  great  in- 
terest. Gian,  who  was  the  more  celebrated  of  the  two,  preferred 
sacred  themes  ;  and  we  meet,  in  this  academy  and  in  the  suburbs  and 
churches  of  Venice,  many  of  his  Madonnas,  whose  invariably  modest 
and  serene  aspect  we  soon  learn  to  recognize.  A  small  group  from 


THE   GALLERY  OF   VENICE.  ^3 

his  hand  of  Saints  Mary,  Magdalene,  and  Catharine,  in  the  room 
named  the  "Pinacoteca  Renier,"  is  exceedingly  sweet. 

The  hall  adjoining  has  little  of  merit  except  Andrea  Busati's 
"  Enthroned  St.  Mark."  He  holds  an  open  book,  and  is  in  the  act 
of  bestowing  a  benediction.  A  fruitless  but  leafy  fig-tree  in  the 
background  is  thought  to  refer  to  the  incident  of  the  barren  fig-tree 
mentioned  in  his  gospel.  Why  an  apple-tree  should  be  likewise  be- 
hind St.  Bernard  who  stands  on  his  left,  has  never  been  explained. 

But  the  gem  of  the  gallery,  from  which  the  visitor  will  not  long 
linger,  is  Titian's  "  Assumption  of  the  Virgin,"  placed  in  an  ornament- 
ed saloon,  known  as  the  "  Hall  of  the  Assumption."  This  glorious 
painting,  described  in  the  preceding  chapter  of  "  World-Pictures,"  is 
the  culmination  of  Venetian  art  both  in  expression  and  coloring.  It 
is  the  one  sole  instance  where  the  genius,  of  Titian,  more  at  home 
among  earthly  Venuses  than  with  holy  saints,  has  worthily  rendered 
the  glow  of  inspiration.  This  is  the  more  remarkable  as  the  Virgin's 
face,  so  far  from  depending  upon  sensuous  charms,  is  not  even  young 
or  fresh.  The  grand,  rapt  woman  is  a  matron,  no  fair  maid ;  but 
those  upturned  features  beam  with  the  radiance  of  heaven  itself. 
The  only  criticism  one  is  inclined  to  make  relates  to  the  size  of  the 
canvas,  which  seems  too  small  for  its  large  and  crowded  figures,  who 
appear  to  need  a  freer,  wider  space — a  singular  fault  for  an  artist  of  a 
school  accustomed  to  measure  canvas  by  the  furlong.  It  also  gave 
me  the  effect  of  having  been  very  lately  and  very  thickly  varnished  ; 
the  gloss  of  the  red  drapery  of  the  Virgin  and  of  the  apostle  in  the 
foreground  being  quite  startling.  Viardot  remarks  that,  though 
Titian  executed  this  wonderful  composition  in  full  youth  and  vigor, 
its  remembrance  was  in  some  way  lost,  till  happily  Cicognara  discov- 
ered it,  much  smoked,  on  a  high  wall  in  the  church  of  the  Frari, 
and  exchanged  it  for  a  new  picture.  The  same  room  contains  a 
"  Visitation  of  St.  Elizabeth,"  and  an  early  "  Assumption,"  catalogued 
as  Titian's  first  pictures,  but  of  little  merit,  and  his  last  "  Descent 
from  the  Cross,"  left  incomplete  by  his  death  at  the  age  of  ninety- 
nine,  but  finished  by  Palma.  Other  Titians,  such  as  "John  the 
Baptist  in  the  Wilderness,"  his  mother's  veritable  portrait,  and  noble 
masculine  portraits,  are  found  in  various  parts  of  the  academy. 

In  the  Hall  of  the  Assumption  we  also  see  a  chef-tfoeuvre  of 
Tintoretto— " The  Miracle  of  St.  Mark"— where  St.  Mark  comes 
down,  head  foremost  and  book  in  hand,  in  a  marvel  of  foreshorten- 


S!4  APPENDIX. 

ing,  to  rescue  a  slave,  his  votary,  who  has  been  condemned  to  death. 
The  sudden  appearance  of  the  evangelist  astounds  the  executioner 
and  populace,  and  electrifies  the  judge,  in  his  red  Venetian  robe,  who 
starts  up  from  his  seat,  while  the  slave  lies  prostrate  with  an  arrow  in 
his  eye.  It  is  "  a  vast  picture,  twenty  feet  square,  containing  fifty 
figures  of  the  size  of  life."  Tintoretto's  great  "  Crucifixion  "  is  not 
in  this  gallery,  but  in  the  school  of  San  Rocco,  a  building  in  a  remote 
quarter  of  the  city,  where  are  assembled  many  works  of  this  master, 
whom  Ruskin,  in  his  "  Stones  of  Venice,"  criticises  approvingly  yet 
trenchantly ;  dealing  high  praise  to  some  of  his  compositions,  but 
declaring  that  others  "  must  have  been  painted  in  a  couple  of  hours 
with  a  broom  for  a  brush."  The  "  Crucifixion,"  which  Ruskin  re- 
gards with  favor,  appears  to  ordinary  eyes  very  faded  and  unimpres- 
sive in  color,  and  very  confused  in  treatment. 

The  rich  decorative  style  and  luminous  tints  of  Paul  Veronese  are 
not  limited  to  the  "  Feast  in  the  House  of  Levi,"  but  shine  in  con- 
spicuous beauty  through  the  entire  academy.  The  "  Saints  "  and 
"  Virgins  "  who  come  before  us  as  portly,  high-born  Venetian  ladies, 
in  superb  brocade,  with  all  accessories  in  keeping  with  their  appear- 
ance, but  utterly  out  of  keeping  with  their  legends,  indicate  the  naive 
and  wholesale  way  in  which  artists  of  the  period  translated  all  his- 
tory and  poetry  into  the  life  of  the  period.  A  room  full  of  Veroneses, 
farther  on,  glorious  in  amber  and  crimson  and  gold,  fairly  dazzles  us 
with  color.  These  are  the  altar-pieces  and  other  pictures  belonging  to 
the  churches  of  San  Salvadore  and  San  Sebastiano,  sent  here  for  safe- 
ty during  the  restoration  of  those  edifices.  They  include  Veronese's 
subjects  from  the  life  of  Esther,  particularly  "  Esther  and  Ahasu- 
erus."  Close  by  them  is  one  of  Giovanni  Bellini's  large  and  much- 
commended  works,  a  "Christ  at  Emmaus,"  of  which  a  late  author 
says  :  "  The  disciples  here  are  men  of  noble  and  dignified  bearing,  of 
a  race  not  quite  yet  extinct  in  Venice.  The  divine  figure  of  the  Mas- 
ter, conceived  at  the  moment  of  recognition,  awes  us  by  its  solemn 
grandeur  and  thoughtfulness.  With  the  strange  incongruity  that  we 
so  often  find  in  pictures  of  this  time,  and  particularly  of  this  school, 
Giovanni,  beside  the  disciples  and  their  Divine  Companion,  has  intro- 
duced a  Venetian  senator  and  a  man  in  a  Turkish  dress  into  the 
scene."  The  latter  turbaned  head  is  believed  by  some  authorities  to 
be  his  brother  Gentile. 

Giorgione,  strange  to  say,  does  not  appear  to  so  much  advantage 


THE   GALLERY  OF   VENICE.  cje 

in  his  native  region  as  in  Florence  or  Germany.  This  gallery  pos- 
sesses only  two  compositions  ascribed  to  him — a  doubtful  portrait, 
and  a  national  allegorical  piece  entitled  "  The  Tempest,"  whose  au- 
thenticity is  questioned  by  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle.  It  is  founded  on 
the  same  legend  as  Paris  Bordone's  "  Fisherman  with  the  Ring." 
But  here  we  have  the  storm  itself.  "  A  ship,  manned  by  demons,  is 
seen  towering  over  the  waves  :  the  demons  are  seized  with  consterna- 
tion ;  some  fling  themselves  headlong  over  the  side  of  their  vessel, 
others  are  clinging  to  the  rigging,  others  sit  on  the  masts,  which 
flame  with  fire  and  glare  over  the  murky  sky  and  sea.  More  in  front 
are  two  barks,  one  rowed  by  four  satyr-like  demons,  splendid  figures, 
admirably  painted,  literally  glowing  as  if  they  were  red-hot,  and  full 
of  fierce  animation.  In  the  other  bark  are  seen  the  three  saints — St. 
Mark,  St.  Nicholas,  and  St.  George,  rowed  by  the  fisherman.  Sea- 
monsters  are  sporting  amid  the  waves  ;  demons  bestride  them  ;  the 
city  of  Venice  is  just  visible  in  the  far-off  distance." 

Cima  da  Conegliano,  a  follower  of  the  Bellini,  is  represented  by  a 
"  Madonna  and  Saints,"  an  "  Incredulity  of  St.  Thomas,"  and  a  few 
other  brilliantly-finished  pictures,  but  has  nothing  here  so  charac- 
teristic as  his  figure  of  the  Saviour  at  Dresden.  Only  a  small  number 
of  the  productions  of  Bassano,  the  Venetian  genre  painter,  exist  in 
this  collection ;  his  best  having  been  sent  to  Spain.  Bissolo  has  a 
"  Dead  Christ  supported  by  Angels,"  and  a  "  Madonna  and  Saints  ;  " 
while  scarcely  any  architectural  pieces  by  Canaletto  remain  to  illus- 
trate his  Venetian  views. 

All  who  traverse  these  rooms  will  be  struck  by  the  many  pictures 
catalogued  as  a  "  Madonna  with  Saints,"  or  a  "  Holy  Conversation." 
This  class  of  subjects,  first  introduced  by  Venetian  artists,  became 
extremely  popular  in  mediaeval  times.  They  were  not  intended  as  an 
historical,  but  as  a  devotional  group,  and  portray  the  Virgin  sur- 
rounded by  sacred  personages,  gazing  on  her,  reading  in  a  book, 
standing  or  kneeling,  but  all  in  sympathy  and  communion  with  her. 
Different  saints  are  selected  on  different  occasions,  and  in  different 
localities ;  the  favorite  band  of  Venetian  attendants  being  St.  Mark, 
St.  Peter,  St.  Catharine,  St.  George,  St.  Nicholas,  and  St.  Justina, 
often  cut  down  to  half-lengths.  This  school  is  also  celebrated  for 
what  are  called  "  Pastoral  Madonnas,"  where  Mary  with  the  Divine 
Child  is  seated  in  a  landscape,  or  reclines  under  a  tree,  while  others 
near  her  minister  or  adore.  Family  and  votive  Madonnas  are  some- 


5i6  APPENDIX. 

times  found,  where  a  whole  family,  in  their  best  attire,  kneel  in  hum- 
ble attitudes  before  the  Virgin  to  implore  her  favor  and  .intercession. 
Frequently  St.  Mark  stands  graciously  commending  them  to  her  care. 

Examples  of  the  "  Holy  Conversations,"  just  described,  are  espe- 
cially common  among  the  works  of  Palma  Vecchio,  who  is  fairly 
represented  in  the  gallery.  He  is  a  warm,  soft  colorist,  with  much 
of  Titian's  richness,  but  less  power.  His  "  Christ  and  the  Widow 
of  Nain,"  in  the  room  containing  the  collection  given  to  the  state  by 
the  Contarini  family,  and  "  Assumption  "  in  the  same  apartment  with 
Titian's  more  famous  composition,  are  considered  worthy  of  praise. 
But  his  Venetian  masterpiece  is  the  sweet- faced  and  majestic  "  St. 
Barbara,"  in  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  Formosa.  The  "  Horsemen  of 
the  Apocalypse,"  in  the  Hall  of  the  Assumption,  is  by  another  Palma. 

The  architectural  drawings  in  the  corridor,  and  other  drawings  in 
an  assembly-hall,  including  some  sketches  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci 
and  Raphael,  will  not  be  very  critically  inspected  by  most  visitors  ; 
neither  will  the  modern  pictures,  which  do  not  inspire  us  with  ardent 
hopes  of  the  art  future  of  Venice,  demand  much  time  or  thought.  The 
ebony  sculptures  next  to  the  Contarini  Cabinet  remind  us  of  the  fan- 
tastic Pesaro  tomb  in  the  church-of  the  Frari  ;  but  the  lovers  of  statu- 
ary will  be  more  interested  in  Canova's  group  of  Hercules  and  Lychas, 
standing  near  Titian's  painting  of  the  "  Presentation  of  the  Virgin." 

A  separate  hall  of  ancient  pictures,  only  important  as  having  been 
painted  in  the  fifteenth  century,  is  filled  with  specimens  of  Venetian 
artists  who  preceded  the  Bellini,  especially  the  various  members  of 
the  Vivarini  family.  A  venerable  altar-piece  in  compartments,  some- 
times termed  an  Ancona,  by  Lorenzo  Veneziano,  may  be  examined 
by  the  curious.  Its  central  pahel  is  occupied  by  the  "  Annuncia- 
tion," while  God  the  Father  appears  above.  An  apartment  farther 
on  has  some  old  Italian  paintings  of  trifling  value  ;  but  this  gallery  is 
peculiarly  provincial,  and  ignores  the  whole  outside  world,  believing 
Venice  to  be  sufficient  for  its  glory.  It  does  not  pretend  to  hold  any 
collections  of  other  schools :  a  few  German  and  Flemish  pictures ; 
two  or  three  productions  ascribed  to  the  French  Callot,  Poussin,  and 
Lebrun ;  a  "  Daniel  in  the  Lions'  Den,"  by  Pietro  da  Cortona  ;  a 
"  Descent  from  the  Cross,"  by  Luca  Giordano ;  a  "  Madonna,"  by 
Pinturricchio  ;  and  a  "  Virgin,"  by  Antonello  da  Messina,  being  the 
only  foreign  elements  worth  noticing. 

The  traveler  will  depart  with  but  one  vivid,  profound  impression 


GALLERY  OF  MADRID.  el7 

of  the  magnificence  and  luxury  of  Venetian  painting  in  the  days  of 
the  republic :  of  splendid,  imposing  forms,  instinct  with  physical  and 
intellectual  life  ;  of  coloring  whose  deep  intensity  is  yet  "  saturated 
with  sunbeams ; "  of  power  and  breadth  and  brilliancy  which,  if 
they  were  but  combined  with  spiritual  force,  would  have  made  Ven- 
ice queen  of  art  as  well  as  queen  of  the  sea.  Titian  fascinates,  yet 
Raphael  holds  us  by  firmer  bands.  Could  the  merits  of  Titian  and 
Raphael  have  been  united,  we  should  have  had  the  perfect  harmony 
of  the  senses  with  the  soul. 

GALLERY   OF   MADRID. 

FEW  travelers,  and  still  fewer  home-lovers  of  art,  have  any  true 
idea  of  the  rich  treasures  which  await  appreciative  eyes  in  the  Royal 
Gallery  of  Madrid,  in  the  Palace  of  the  Prado.  Even  enthusiasm 
for  the  painters  could  hardly  overbalance  the  dangers  to  life  and  lib- 
erty which  have  lately  beset  the  wanderer  in  Spain ;  and  hence, 
while  the  galleries  of  Italy,  France,  and  Germany,  are  comparatively 
familiar  to  the  public,  the  fame  of  Madrid  pictures  is  almost  as  shad- 
owy as  that  of  the  Alhambra.  But,  as  this  cannot  long  be  so,  a  short 
notice  of  the  masterpieces  of  the  museum  will  not  be  wasted. 

The  founding  of  the  gallery  in  its  present  form  may  be  ascribed 
to  Ferdinand  VII.  of  Spain  ;  but  its  glory  is  justly  due  to  the  artistic 
tastes  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  King  Philip  II.,  and  their  success- 
ors of  the  house  of  Austria.  Their  princely  bounty  purchased  the 
chefs-d'oeuvre  of  Raphael,  Titian,  Veronese,  Rubens,  and  Vandyck, 
and  made  Velasquez  court-painter.  Where  they  sowed  the  Bour- 
bons reaped.  Paintings  which  had  been  scattered  through  the  Es- 
curial,  the  palaces  of  the  kings,  or  the  cathedrals  and  convents  of 
the  clergy,  are  now  united  in  one  large  collection  for  the  admiration 
of  the  world. 

Entering  the  Museo  del  Rey,  a  spacious  rotunda,  encircled  by  pil- 
lars, boasts  of  nothing  grander  than  the  hasty,  coarse,  yet  clever 
compositions  of  Luca  Giordano,  the  fast  and  furious  artist  of  the 
closing  seventeenth  century  ;  or  the  equestrian  portraits  of  Francisco 
Goya,  of  a  still  later  period.  This  rotunda,  however,  leads  to  the 
saloons  of  the  Spanish  and  Italian  schools,  and  to  the  grand  central 
hall  of  Spanish  and  Italian  masterpieces,  containing  sixty-five  paint- 
ings by  Velasquez,  forty-six  by  Murillo,  fifty-eight  by  Ribera,  eight 


5i8  APPENDIX. 

by  Alonzo  Cano,  fourteen  by  Zurbaran,  ten  by  Raphael,  forty-three 
by  Titian,  sixty-two  by  Rubens,  twenty-four  by  Paul  Veronese,  and 
more  than  thirty  by  Tintoretto.  Some  of  the  choicest  of  these, 
without  respect  to  age  or  country,  are  gathered  in  a  small  oval  apart- 
ment called  the  "  Isabella  Saloon,"  opening  off  from  the  main  gallery. 
Their  arrangement  may  be  occasionally  varied,  but  all  traditions 
would  be  opposed  to  any  extensive  changes. 

The  works  of  early  Spanish  artists  are  invariably  sacred.  Many 
of  them  may  be  best  studied  in  more  remote  cities,  but  a  few  fine 
specimens  of  all  the  native  schools  can  here  be  inspected.  Most  at- 
tractive of  these  are  the  compositions  of  Juan  Joanes,  a  gentle  and 
devout  soul,  with  much  genius  and  sweetness,  who  has  left  a  "  Last 
Supper,"  in  which  the  head  of  Christ  is  only  inferior  to  that  by  Leo- 
nardo da  Vinci ;  a  pathetic  "  Descent  from  the  Cross ;  "  a  life-like 
"  Portrait ; "  several  such  quaint  subjects  as  the  "  Visit  of  Santa  Isa- 
bel to  the  Virgin,"  or  the  "  Death  of  Santa  Inez  ; "  and  a  more  pre- 
tentious series  on  the  "  Life  and  Death  of  St.  Stephen."  Roelas  has 
but  one  example,  a  "  Moses  striking  the  Rock."  The  "  Divine  Mo- 
rales "  does  not  appear  so  divine  as  fancy  painted  him  in  his  lean 
and  livid  "  Madonnas  "  and  "  Saviours  ; "  neither  will  Ribalta's 
black  and  harrowing  pictures  entrance  the  spectator.  A  few  fine 
portraits  by  Coello,  especially  one  of  Don  Carlos,  take  us  back  to 
the  time  of  Philip  II.  Zurbaran's  "  Kneeling  Monk,"  prostrate  be- 
fore a  luminous  crucifix,  attracts  by  its  ghastly  grandeur ;  while  his 
"  Sleeping  Christ,"  draped  in  dark  purple  robes,  though  less  power- 
ful, is  extremely  impressive. 

But  Velasquez  and  Murillo  are  of  course  the  lions  of  the  gallery. 
Indeed,  Velasquez  can  only  be  understood  and  appreciated  amid  the 
scenes  where  he  lived  and  labored.  Every  day  in  Spain  increases  our 
admiration  of  his  ability  and  truthfulness.  He  painted  what  he  saw 
and  what  we  still  see,  with  absolute  fidelity.  No  ideals  troubled 
his  aspiration.  No  saints  or  angels  came  to  him  with  beautiful  vi- 
sions. His  "  Martyrdom  of  St.  Stephen  "  and  pale  "  Dead  Christ  " 
are  his  only  sacred  subjects.  His  portraits  of  the  "  Imperial  Family  " 
were  no  flattering  tributes  to  royalty.  If  they  were  not  good-looking, 
that  was  their  misfortune,  which  he  was  not  bound  to  remedy. 
Philip  IV.,  Queen  Isabel,  his  second  wife  Maria  of  Austria,  and  the 
fat  and  vacant-faced  Infanta  Margarita,  might  command  their  like- 
nesses in  all  sizes  and  attitudes,  but  they  could  draw  no  beauty  from 


GALLERY  OF  MADRID.  -,g 

his  too-truthful  brush.  The  youthful  Don  Balthasar  was  more  for- 
tunate. He  is  really  handsome  on  his  spirited  pony.  Most  famous 
of  all  these  pictures  is  the  superb  portrait  of  "  King  Philip  on  Horse- 
back," and  a  large  and  splendid  painting  known  as  "  Las  Meninas," 
or  the  "  Maids  of  Honor,"  representing  Velasquez  himself  before  an 
easel,  in  a  stately  room,  painting  the  little  Infanta,  her  maids,  her 
dog,  and  dwarfs,  who  stand  grouped  before  him,  while  the  faces  of 
the  king  and  queen  are  reflected  in  a  mirror  on  the  wall.  The  won- 
derful perspective  and  effects  of  light,  air,  and  space,  conveyed  by 
this  celebrated  picture,  have  often  been  commented  on.  Just  oppo- 
site hangs  a  great  historical  piece,  by  the  same  artist,  "  The  Surren- 
der of  Breda."  Each  general  is  an  animated  portrait-figure,  and  the 
soldiers'  long  line  of  bristling  spears  has  given  the  composition  the 
Spanish  title,  "  Las  Lanzas."  Velasquez  is  said  to  have  introduced  his 
own  head,  in  hat  and  plume.  The  background  shows  his  facility  in 
landscape  treatment ;  though  this  is  still  further  illustrated  by  his 
"  Views  of  Aranjuez,"  and  other  scenes,  often  olive-green  or  cold 
gray  in  color,  but  marvelous  in  atmosphere,  gradation  of  tone,  and 
lineal  correctness.  We  next  notice  his  "  Borrachos "  or  "Topers," 
all  drunk  as  Bacchus,  honoring  one  of  their  number  with  a  mock 
coronation  of  ivy-leaves.  A  last,  large  canvas,  "  Las  Hilanderas,"  or 
the  "  Spinners,"  must  not  be  neglected.  Workwomen  of  a  manu- 
factory are  exhibiting  goods  to  their  lady  visitors.  The  dim  interior 
light,  the  natural  figures,  and  the  shadowy  perspective,  have  been  en- 
thusiastically praised.  As  an  instance  of  the  equality  of  genius,  it 
may  be  remarked  that  this  same  collection  contains  a  good  picture  of 
the  "  Calling  of  St.  Matthew,"  executed  by  Juan  de  Pareja,  once 
Velasquez's  mulatto  slave.  Pareja  has  humbly  painted  himself  in 
the  corner  with  crisp  hair,  thick  lips,  and  dark  complexion. 

The  very  different  style  of  Murillo  is  displayed  more  brilliantly  at 
Seville  than  at  Madrid,  though  many  of  his  most  pleasing  works  have 
been  secured  for  the  gallery.  Two  lovely  "  Conceptions  "  enchant  us 
by  their  pure  and  graceful  Virgin,  their  celestial  radiance,  and  rosy, 
floating  cherubs.  "  The  Death  of  St.  Andrew  "  is  one  of  his  best 
aerial  pictures.  "A  silvery  tint,  which  seems  showered  down  by 
angels,  who  hold  out  Ihe  palm  of  immortality  to  the  old  man  who  is 
being  crucified,  pervades  every  object,  softens  the  outlines,  harmo- 
nizes the  tone,  and  gives  the  whole  scene  a  cloudy  and  fantastic  ap- 
pearance which  is  full  of  charm."  The  same  may  be  said  of  an 
34 


520 


APPENDIX. 


"  Annunciation,"  where  the  holy  Dove  comes  straight  from  the  glory 
of  heaven.  An  "  Adoration  of  the  Shepherds  "  is  admirable,  but  less 
unearthly.  The  glowing  brown  of  its  deeper  tints  is  thought  to  owe 
its  richness  to  a  peculiar  color  which  Murillo  produced  from  the 
pounded  beef-bones  of  his  daily  stew.  A  striking  "  Conversion  of 
St.  Paul"  has  been  destructively  restored,  as  have  many  others  of 
these  Spanish  gems.  A  "  Holy  Family,"  perfectly  realistic  in  treat- 
ment, exhibits  the  interior  of  a  carpenter's  shop ;  peasant  parents,  a 
sweet,  sportive  child,  a  little  bird,  a  dog — not  at  all  holy,  but  very 
suggestive  of  calm  domestic  happiness.  A  "Vision  of  St.  Augus- 
tine," where  the  bishop,  in  full  pontificals,  gazes  down  upon  a  child 
on  the  sea-shore  with  a  shell  in  his  hand,  illustrates  the  old  tradition 
of  the  apparition  which  one  day  warned  the  saint  of  his  inability  to 
penetrate  heavenly  secrets.  For,  as  the  legend  tells  us,  "  while  St. 
Augustine  was  busied  in  writing  his  'Discourse  on  the  Trinity,'  he 
wandered  by  the  ocean  lost  in  meditation.  Suddenly  he  perceived  a 
child  bringing  water  from  the  waves  to  fill  a  hole  which  he  had  dug 
in  the  sand.  Augustine  inquired  what  was  the  object  of  his  task. 
He  replied  that  he  intended  to  empty  into  the  cavity  all  the  waters 
of  the  great  deep.  '  Impossible  ! '  exclaimed  Augustine.  '  Not  more 
impossible,'  replied  the  child,  'than  for  thee,  O  Augustine,  to  explain 
the  mystery  on  which  thou  art  now  pondering.'  " 

Ribera's  savage  and  sombre  compositions  contrast  with  Murillo's 
as  a  thunder-storm  with  a  sunset.  To  the  intense  and  fiery  nature 
of  a  Spaniard  he  added  the  wildness  of  an  Italian  brigand,  and  the 
result  is  visible  in  such  pictures  as  his  horrible  "Prometheus  bound," 
"  Martyrdom  of  St.  Bartholomew,"  or  "  Ixion  at  the  Wheel."  His 
broad  masses  of  light  and  shade  are  nevertheless  very  artistically 
managed.  "St.  James,"  "St.  Roch,"  and  "The  Heads  of  the 
Twelve  Apostles,"  are  forcible  but  more  agreeable  efforts,  while 
there  is  even  an  imitation  of  Correggio  in  his  famous  painting  of 
"  Jacob's  Ladder,"  where  Jacob,  in  the  garb  of  a  common  monk,  lies 
sleeping  in  the  foreground,  and  angels  are  traversing  the  broad  line 
of  golden  glory  at  the  right.  A  strange  portrait  of  an  aged  Spanish 
female,  nursing  a  child  in  her  arms,  called  "  Magdalene  Ventura," 
hideously  ugly,  with  a  long  black  beard,  is  another  evidence  of  his 
singular  taste.  Alonzo  Cano,  of  the  Andalusian  school,  though  pow- 
erful and  national  in  his  characteristics,  is  dignified  in  treatment,  and 
deep  and  ardent  in  color.  His  "  St.  John  at  Patmos,"  "  Christ  at  the 


CALLER Y  OF  MADRID.  _  2  x 

Column,"  and  "Virgin  and  Dead  Christ,"  are  vigorous,  impressive 
pictures.  Not  many  compliments  can  be  made  to  the  remains  of 
Spanish  genius  left  us  after  the  death  of  Murillo.  Those  of  Valdes 
Leal,  Miguel  de  Tobar,  and  Francisco  Goya/  are  alone  worthy  of 
mention.  Tobar  was  Murillo's  pupil,  and  painted  his  master's  por- 
trait ;  also  a  pastoral  scene  of  the  Virgin  Mary  as  "  The  Divine  Shep- 
herdess," feeding  her  lambs  on  roses.  The  modern  pictures  are 
generally  of  no  importance. 

A  very  brief  stroll  through  the  gallery  suffices  to  prove  that  its 
reputation  is  not  confined  to  the  works  of  Spaniards.  Here  is  one 
of  the  most  highly-praised,  and  probably  the  most  beautiful,  of  all 
Raphael's  "  Holy  Families,'  considered  by  Philip  IV.  the  pearl  of  his 
pictures,  and  ever  after  called  "La  Perla."  The  mild  and  thought- 
ful Virgin,  the  young  St.  John  offering  fruit  in  his  panther's  skin, 
and  the  spiritual  gaze  of  the  divine  Child,  will  never  be  forgotten  by 
the  beholder.  A  second  "Madonna"  (usually  spoken  of  as  "Tobit 
and  the  Fish  "),  where  the  youthful  Tobit,  holding  a  fish  in  one  hand, 
is  presented  by  the  archangel  Raphael  to  an  enthroned  Virgin,  is 
likewise  very  admirable  in  execution,  but  yellowish  and  faded  in 
color.  The  genuineness  of  some  other  "  Holy  Families  "  attributed 
to  Raphael,  is  more  than  doubtful.  A  "  Visitation,"  and  a  couple  of 
portraits,  are  also  marked  with  his  name.  The  grand  altar-piece 
known  as  "  Lo  Spasimo  di  Sicilia  "  has  a  world-wide  renown  and  a 
curious  history.  It  was  completed  for  a  Sicilian  convent,  was  ship- 
wrecked on  the  passage,  floated  up  to  Genoa,  was  rescued  and  sent 
again  to  Sicily,  was  afterward  carried  into  Spain  by  the  Viceroy  of 
Naples,  then  captured  by  the  French,  cleaned  and  restored  at  Paris, 
and  finally  returned  to  Madrid.  Truth  compels  the  confession  that 
scrubbing  and  repainting  have  so  sunk  its  tone  into  a  brick-dust 
brown  that  the  pathos  of  its  procession  to  Calvary*  its  fainting  Christ, 
and  agonized  Virgin,  are  more  sincerely  felt  by  inspection  of  a  good 
engraving  than  of  the  original  picture. 

Titian,  the  favorite  of  Charles  V.  and  Philip  II.,  shines  in  Madrid 
with  even  greater  lustre  than  the  divine  Raphael.  Among  his  forty- 
three  compositions  in  the  gallery,  only  a  few  can  be  particularized. 
His  imposing  equestrian  portrait  of  Charles  V.  rivals  the  Philip  of 
Velasquez.  Nine  or  ten  other  portraits  exhibit  all  his  wonted  state- 
liness  and  force.  His  own  venerable  likeness  of  himself  in  his  de- 
clining days  is  very  interesting.  "  St.  Jerome,"  "  St.  Margaret," 


522 


APPENDIX. 


"  The  Adoration  of  the  Kings,"  "  Adam  and  Eve,"  "  The  Entomb- 
ment," "  Repose  in  "Egypt,"  and  "  Salome  with  the  Head  of  St.  John 
Baptist,"  rank  first  of  his  sacred  pieces.  His  daughter  Lavinia  was 
the  model  for  Salome.  A  splendid  "  Last  Supper,"  painted  for  the 
refectory  of  the  Escurial,  the  finest  religious  production  which  Titian 
ever  contributed  to  Spain,  has  mouldered  and  faded  into  almost  en- 
tire decay.  "The  Apotheosis  of  Charles  V.  and  Philip  II."  forms 
the  link  between  his  biblical  and  mythological  conceptions.  It  is  a 
holy  allegory,  in  which  the  Deity  welcomes  the  Spanish  monarchs 
to  the  celestial  court.  Prophets,  saints,  and  angels,  celebrate  their 
reception,  and  the  blue-robed  Virgin  gladly  awaits  her  faithful  vota- 
ries. Another  allegorical  picture  of  "  The  Victory  of  Lepanto,"  in 
which  a  heavenly  messenger  brings  the  tidings  of  conquest  and  the 
palm-branch  of  fame  to  Philip  II.  and  his  youthful  son,  was  executed 
by  the  artist  of  Cadore  when  over  ninety.  Plenty  of  classical  pict- 
ures make  up  the  remainder  of  his  works — Venus,  Bacchus,  and  Di- 
ana, in  a  variety  of  legends,  and  with  no  superfluous  draperies — 
"The  Offering  to  Fecundity,"  and  a  "Captive  Prometheus,"  grand 
and  painful,  but  infinitely  less  repulsive  than  Ribera's. 

Two  or  three  of  Giorgione's  rare  specimens  have  found  a  home 
in  this  gallery — a  "Virgin  with  Saints,"  a  "Family  Portrait,"  and  a 
"  David  and  Goliath,"  in  the  costumes  of  the  fifteenth  century.  One 
must  speak  with  trembling  of  the  authenticity  of  Giorgione's  pictures. 
Veronese  has  a  repetition  of  "The  Marriage  at  Cana,"  "Christ  and 
the  Centurion,"  "  Christ  disputing  with  the  Doctors,"  "Cain  and  his 
Family,"  "Susanna  and  the  Elders,"  and  several  allegorical  and 
classical  efforts.  Tintoretto  is  best  represented  by  some  excellent 
portraits,  a  magnificently-colored  "Death  of  Holofernes,"  and  an 
original  sketch  of  the  great  "Paradiso,"  in  the  doge's  palace.  Se- 
bastian del  Piombo  has  here  left  us  one  of  his  masterpieces,  a  "  De- 
scent of  Christ  into  Hades ; "  and  the  Bassano  family  seem  to  have 
been  eminently  successful  in  selling  their  marvelous  groups  of  sheep, 
cattle,  and  religious  and  mythological  genre  pieces,  to  the  Spanish 
kings. 

No  other  Italian  schools  appear  in  such  perfection  as  the  Vene- 
tian, but  we  may  especially  contemplate  a  doubtful  repetition  of 
Leonardo  da  Vinci's  "  Mona  Lisa  ; "  a  "  Christ  and  the  Magdalene," 
by  Correggio ;  a  "Holy  Family,"  "Virgin  with  Saints,"  "Sacrifice 
of  Abraham,"  and  portrait  of  his  wife,  by  Andrea  del  Sarto ;  a  "St. 


GALLERY  OF  MADRID.  523 

Peter  in  Prison,"  "Susanna  with  the  Elders,"  and  a  "Genius  of 
Painting,"  in  orange  -  colored  drapery,  by  Guercino;  a  "St.  Je- 
rome," by  Domenichino ;  an  "Enthroned  Virgin,"  by  Guido;  a 
"  Holy  Family,"  by  Luini ;  a  "  Crucifixion,"  by  Baroccio  ;  a  portrait 
and  "Holy  Family,"  by  Parmagiano;  some  landscapes,  by  Salvator 
Rosa;  and  an  "  Allegory  of  Peace "  and  "  Holy  Family,"  by  Luca 
Giordano,  whose  irrepressible  industry  has  contributed  about  fifty- 
five  works  to  the  museum. 

A  rotunda  of  French  pictures,  containing  some  compositions  by 
Poussin,  and  a  number  of  charming  landscapes  by  Claude  Lorraine, 
will  be  found  an  attractive  spot.  The  best  of  these  landscapes  are  a 
"  Sunset  Scene,"  with  figures  of  Tobit  and  the  angel,  probably  by 
Courtois ;  and  a  "  Sunrise  over  the  Sea,"  with  St.  Paula  embarking 
from  the  palace  on  the  shore.  • 

Flemish,  Dutch,  and  German  paintings  are  nearly  as  abundant  as 
Italian.  Rubens  is  preeminent  in  this  department.  A  "  Rape  of 
Proserpine,"  "  The  Banquet  of  Tereus,"  "  Perseus  delivering  Andro- 
meda," "  The  Three  Graces,"  "  Nymphs  and  Satyrs,"  "  Diana  and 
Calisto,"  "The  Garden  of  Love,"  and  ''Judgment  of  Paris,"  are 
rendered  in  his  favorite  style— bold,  rosy,  ample,  and  glowing.  The 
largest  of  all  is  the  immense  and  superb  sacred  scene  of  "  The  Ado- 
ration of  the  Kings,"  who  bow  before  the  queenly  Mother  and  her 
holy  Child.  "  The  light  flashes  out  over  the  kneeling  Magi,  the 
gorgeously-robed  attendants,  the  prodigality  of  velvet,  and  jewels, 
and  gold,  to  fade  into  the  lovely  clear  obscure  of  a  starry  night,  peo- 
pled with  dim  camels  and  cattle.  On  the  extreme  right  is  a  most 
graceful  and  gallant  portrait  of  the  artist  on  horseback." 

Twenty-two  Vandycks  and  twenty-three  Snyders  still  betoken  the 
wealth  of  this  extensive  gallery.  The  Snyders  are  of  the  common 
type— wild  hunts,  dead  game,  lions,  goats,  fowls,  and  fruit ;  but  the 
Vandycks  are  exceedingly  fine,  including  some  such  memorable  por- 
traits as  those  of  the  beautiful  Countess  of  Oxford,  an  armed  knight, 
a  black-robed  cavalier,  an  "  Organist  of  Antwerp,"  and  himself  and 
the  Earl  of  Bristol.  There  are  also  two  striking  sacred  pieces,  a 
"  Saviour  crowned  with  Thorns,"  and  a  "Betrayal  of  Christ,"  where 
he  has  combined  the  vivid  coloring  of  Rubens,  in  the  red  glare  of 
the  torchlight,  with  his  own  refinement  and  delicacy  in  the  finishing 
of  the  figures  and  the  flexibility  of  the  attitudes.  Portraits  by  An- 
tonio Moro  are  nobly  executed  and  full  of  interest,  particularly  those 


524 


APPENDIX. 


of  Queen  Mary  of  England  and  the  Emperor  Maximilian  II.  A 
"Crucifixion,"  some  allegories,  and  an  "Adam  and  Eve,"  by  Al- 
brecht  Diirer,  are  not  so  admirable  as  his  youthful  likeness  of  him- 
self at  the  age  of  twenty-five.  His  striped  costume,  pointed  cap,  fair 
curling,  hair,  blue  eyes,  and  thin,  intelligent  face,  are  very  pleasing. 
Teniers's  fifty-two  pictures,  mostly  of  rustic  festivals,  monkeys,  drink- 
ers, hermits,  and  "  Temptations  of  St.  Antony,"  are  elaborately  ren- 
dered and  full  of  details.  The  largest  is  "  Rinaldo  and  Armida," 
but  one  of  the  most  characteristic  is  "  La  Graciosa  Fregatriz,"  in 
which  a  jealous  old  wife  watches  her  gallant  husband  kissing  a  pretty 
kitchen-maid.  Breughel's  numberless  variations  of  the  same  class 
of  subjects  are  far  less  able,  and  very  tiresome.  Jerome  Bosch's 
incantation  scenes  and  goblin  revels  are  grotesque  and  weird.  Wou- 
verman^  hunting  and  sporting  pieces  excite  frequent  enthusiasm, 
especially  in  the  English  mind  ;  and  Both's  and  Swanevelt's  sunrises 
and  sunsets  are  agreeable  examples  of  Northern  landscape  genius 
transported  into  Spain. 

i 

THE  GALLERY  OF  THE  LOUVRE. 

THE  Gallery  or  Musee  of  the  Louvre  has  existed  as  a  national 
museum  for  more  than  eighty  years.  The  building  itself  is  of  course 
ancient,  having  been  transformed  at  the  time  of  the  Renaissance  and 
under  Francis  I.,  from  a  fortress  into  a  royal  palace,  which  the  sub- 
sequent sovereigns  of  France  delighted  to  enlarge  and  adorn.  The 
pictures  of  its  gallery  previously  graced  the  cabinets  of  art-loving 
kings,  and  were  united  in  the  Louvre  by  order  of  the  French  Republic 
in  1793. 

The  immense  collection  of  the  Louvre  comprises  not  only  more 
than  eighteen  hundred  pictures,  but  a  superb  assemblage  of  ancient 
and  modern  statues,  an  Assyrian,  Egyptian,  and  Etruscan  museum, 
engravings,  enamels,  porcelain,  jewels,  antiques,  royal  and  national 
memorials,  and  countless  objects  of  general  interest.  No  one  could 
walk  through  the  grand  "  Hall  of  Apollo,"  with  its  richly-frescoed 
ceiling,  its  lofty  walls,  tapestried  with  the  portraits  of  French  artists, 
and  its  magnificent  cabinets  and  curiosities,  without  feeling  that  one 
such  saloon  alone  would  be  worthy  of  Paris.  But  for  a  description 
of  these  beauties  we  must  refer  to  other  writers,  and  confine  our  at- 
tention simply  to  the  pictures. 


THE   GALLERY  OF  THE  LOUVRE.  S2e 

All  travelers  visiting  the  great  Salon  Carre,  the  artists'  cham- 
ber of  honor,  must  complain  of  its  deficient  light  and  confused  ar- 
rangement. The  paintings  are  ranged  upon  the  walls  without  the 
least  reference  to  chronology  or  country.  But,  after  all,  it  is  only 
an  embarras  de  richesses  that  troubles  us,  and  we  need  not  pause 
to  settle  the  question  of  precedence  between  Raphael,  Van  Eyck,  and 
Murillo.  The  masterpieces  which  we  shall  first  seek  are  the  Madon- 
nas or  holy  families  by  Raphael,  known  as  "  La  Belle  Jardiniere," 
where  the  Virgin,  seated  amid  blossoming  plants,  gazes  on  the  stand- 
ing Child  Jesus  and  the  kneeling  St.  John  ;  the  "  Madonna  of  Francis 
I.,"  in  which  St.  Elizabeth,  St.  John,  St.  Joseph,  and  flower-bearing 
angels  are  present,  while  the  Infant  springs  from  his  cradle  into  the 
arms  of  his  mother;  and  "La  Vierge  au  Linge,"  or  "Vierge  au 
Diademe,"  where  the  sleeping  Babe  reposes  on  the  ground,  and  the 
crowned  Virgin  lifts  the  veil  which  covers  him.  An  "Archangel 
Michael  and  the  Dragon,"  by  Raphael,  is  scarcely  less  renowned ; 
while  a  very  small  "  St.  Michael "  and  "  St.  George  "  are  miniature 
specimens  of  his  youthful  works. 

On  the  same  wall  with  "  La  Vierge  au  Linge  "  hangs  Leonardo 
da  Vinci's  famous  portrait  of  "  Mona  Lisa,"  often  entitled  "  La 
Joconde."  This  picture,  so  exquisitely  executed  and  so  praised 
for  its  delicate  beauty  and  enchanting  smile,  has  been  sadly  in- 
jured by  the  ravages  of  Time,  and  too  generally  disappoints  the  spec- 
tator. On  the  opposite  wall,  near  the  farther  door,  is  a  "Holy 
Family,"  by  Leonardo,  in  which  the  Virgin  sits  upon  the  knee  of  her 
mother  St.  Anna,  stooping  forward  to  take  up  the  Infant  Christ,  who 
caresses  a  lamb. 

Correggio's  "  Marriage  of  St.  Catharine,"  larger  in  size  than  his 
rendering  of  the  same  subject  at  Naples,  is  inimitably  graceful,  ele- 
gant, and  soft  in  color;  while  his  "Sleeping  Antiope,"  just  opposite, 
is  one  of  his  most  celebrated  mythological  pieces.  Titian's  "  En- 
tombment," near  it,  a  repetition  of  the  same  composition  at  the 
Manfrini  Palace,  Venice,  is  somewhat  dark  and  heavy,  and  not  so 
pleasing  as  his  portrait  of  a  young  woman  at  her  toilet,  combing  her 
long,  rich  hair.  This  is  called  "  Titian's  Mistress,"  but  is  more  prob- 
ably the  likeness  of  Laura  cle  Dianti,  a  beautiful  favorite  of  Alphonso, 
Duke  of  Ferrara.  The  man  in  the  background,  holdmg  a  mirror,  is 
thought  to  be  Alphonso  himself. 

Paul  Veronese's  "  Marriage  at  Cana  "  is  in  no  danger  of  being 


526 


APPENDIX. 


overlooked,  not  only  from  its  splendor  of  detail,  but  because  it  is  the 
largest  easel-picture  in  the  world,  containing  crowds  of  figures  larger 
than  life.  Among  the  guests  at  the  banquet  Veronese  has  painted 
portrait-figures  of  King  Francis  I.,  Eleanor  of  Austria,  Queen  Mary 
of  England,  Emperor  Charles  V.,  the  Sultan  of  Turkey,  and  Vittoria 
Colonna.  Christ  and  the  Virgin,  placed  near  the  centre,  are  only 
distinguishable  by  aureoles.  Another  feast  by  Paul  Veronese,  the 
"  Repast  in  the  House  of  Simon  the  Pharisee,"  is  thirty-one  feet  long, 
and  nearly  fifteen  feet  high,  but  is  far  less  interesting. 

Murillo's  "  Immaculate  Conception,"  on  the  right  wall,  originally 
brought  from  Spain,  was  purchased  by  the  French  in  1852  for  a  sum 
exceeding  one  hundred  arid  twenty  thousand  dollars.  Few  more 
lovely  faces  or  graceful  forms  exist  in  painting  than  this  white-robed 
Virgin,  hovering  in  dazzling  glory.  A  little  to  the  left  is  a  "  Holy 
Family,"  or  "  Conception,"  also  by  Murillo,  where  the  Madonna  holds 
the  standing  Christ-child  who  receives  a  reed-cross  from  the  little 
St.  John.  The  aged  Elizabeth  kneels.  This  composition  is  some- 
times termed  a  "  Trinity,"  because  the  Eternal  Father  is  represented 
in  the  clouds,  and  the  Dove  of  the  Holy  Spirit  is  likewise  present. 

In  the  paintings  just  enumerated  we  have  noticed  the  gems  of  the 
gallery.  The  same  saloon,  however,  boasts  of  many  other  remark- 
able pieces,  such  as  Van  Eyck's  small  but  exquisite  "Virgin  and 
Donor ;  "  Gerard  Dow's  chef-d'oeuvre,  "  La  Femme  Hydropique  ;  " 
Giorgione's  "  Concert  Champetre  ;  "  Vandyck's  portrait  of  Charles 
I.,  Holbein's  portrait  of  Anne  of  Cleves,  Rubens's  portrait  of  his 
"Wife  and  Sons,"  Bellini's  portrait  of  himself  and  brother ;  Fran- 
cia's  portrait  of  a  young  man  in  black,  once  believed  to  be  the  work 
of  Raphael ;  Rigaud's  full-length  portrait  of  Bossuet ;  and  Philippe 
de  Champagne's  excellent  full-length  portrait  of  Cardinal  Richelieu  ; 
or  such  fine  sacred  scenes  as  Perugino's  early  "  Madonna  and  Child," 
Luini's  "  Salome  with  the  Head  of  St.  John  Baptist,"  Ribera's  "  Ado- 
ration of  the  Shepherds,"  Ghirlandajo's  and  Sebastian  del  Piombo's 
"  Visitation,"  and  a  "Nativity"  by  Giulio  Romano. 

The  "  Grand  Gallery,"  which  strikes  the  observer  as  endlessly  and 
splendidly  long,  affords  us  the  opportunity,  denied  in  the  Salon 
Carrt,  of  studying  art  chronologically  and  geographically.  The 
paintings  are  .arranged  in  the  order  of  time,  and  according  to  nation- 
alities, beginning  with  such  early  Italian  altar-pieces  as  Cimabue's 
"Madonna"  surrounded  by  angels,  Cosimo  Roselli's  "Virgin,"  or 


THE  GALLERY  OF  THE  LOUVRE.        ^ 

Gozzoli's  "Triumph  of  St.  Thomas  of  Aquinas,"  and  exhibiting,  in 
colors  surprisingly  fresh,  Fra  Angelico's  celebrated  "  Coronation  of 
the  Virgin,"  a  marvel  of  "sweetness  and  light"  whose  celestial 
throngs  seem  like  a  vision  of  paradise.  The  coronation  itself  takes 
place  in  the  upper  part  of  the  picture,  and  below  is  a  happy  host  ot 
angels  and  saints,  among  whom  we  notice  not  only  the  Apostles,  the 
Magdalene,  and  the  Virgin  Martyrs,  but  Moses,  St.  Augustine,  King 
David,  and  Charlemagne. 

The  productions  of  the  Venetian  school  are,  as  usual,  the  most 
brilliant  of  this  Italian  series.  Here  we  perceive  Titian's  "Jupiter 
and  Antiope,'.'  or  "Venus  del  Pardo;  "  his  "  Crowning  with  Thorns," 
executed  at  the  age  of  sixty-six ;  and  a  "  Madonna  with  Sts.  Stephen, 
Andrew,  and  Maurice."  A  "Madonna,"  by  Bonifazio,  is  boldly  and 
brilliantly  colored.  The  most  extraordinary  of  Paul  Veronese's  ad- 
jacent works  is  his  "  Disciples  at  Emmaus,"  where  the  painter  and 
his  family  are  conspicuously  introduced,  with  two  frolicsome  little 
girls  playing  with  a  large  dog  in  the  foreground. 

The  collection  of  the  Bolognese  school,  is  more  significant  in  quan- 
tity than  in  quality.  Among  twenty  pictures  by  Guido  Reni,  some 
of  which  are  large  and  pretentious,  a  tender  "Magdalene"  and  his 
often-repeated  "Ecce  Homo"  will  prove  most  attractive  to  the  ordi- 
nary spectator.  A  "  St.  Cecilia  "  is  the  most  popular  of  Domenichino's 
thirteen  compositions.  Guercino  has  also  an  inferior  "  St.  Cecilia,"  but 
a  very  excellent  "  Circe ;  "  while  Albani's  twenty-two  sacred  and  clas- 
sical scenes,  where  Virgins  and  Venuses,  Cherubs  and  Cupids,  might 
easily  change  characters,  are  sweet  as  pink  sugar,  and  quite  as 
cloying.  His  first  "  Repose  in  Egypt"  is,  however,  a  charming  and 
graceful  pastoral,  and  his  "  Toilet  of  Venus  "  an  exquisite  bit  of 
mythology.  Annibale  Carracci  displays  more  talent.  His  "Dead 
Christ,"  and  "  Resurrection,"  where  the  guard  lies  sleeping  on  top 
of  the  closed  tomb  while  the  Saviour  soars  forth  above,  are  elaborate 
though  not  very  pleasing  works.  But  his  small  "Madonna  of 
Silence,"  and  "  Vierge  aux  Cerises,"  are  popular  through  engravings 
and  photographs.  In  his  "  Vierge  aux  Cerises  "  Joseph  is  presenting 
Mary  with  a  bunch  of  cherries,  in  accordance  with  the  legend  which 
relates  that  before  the  birth  of  Jesus  the  Virgin  wished  to  taste  of 
certain  cherries  which  hung  on  a  tree  high  above  her  head.  She 
requested  Joseph  to  procure  them  for  her ;  and,  he  reaching  to  pluck 
them,  the  branch  bowed  down  to  his  hand. 


5*8 


APPENDIX. 


A  few  other  Italian  paintings,  such  as  Vasari's  "  Angelic  Salu- 
tation," one  of  the  best  specimens  of  the  author  artist;  Sassoferrato's 
full-length  "Madonna,"  Pietro  da  Cortona's  "Nativity  of  the  Virgin," 
Salvator  Rosa's  landscapes,  and  Volterra's  "David  slaying  Goliath," 
demand  our  notice;  and  we  then  pass  on  to  the  meagre  Spanish 
School,  consisting  of  but  twenty-two  pictures.  The  fine  Spanish 
works  belonging  to  Louis  Philippe  were  sold  and  dispersed,  so  that 
many  gems  which  formerly  graced  the  Louvre  must  now  be  sought  in 
different  European  galleries.  Of  the  present  twenty-two,  Murillo's 
grand  "Conception"  and  "Holy  Family,"  and  Ribera's  "Adoration 
of  the  Shepherds,"  hang  in  the  Salon  Carre.  Eight  other  Murillos, 
often  much  injured  and  restored,  are  in  this  long  gallery,  including 
another  "  Immaculate  Conception,"  a  large  and  curious  "  Birth  of 
the  Virgin,"  the  gracious  "  Madonna  of  the  Rosary,"  and  the  droll 
"  Miracle  of  San  Diego,"  or  the  "  Angel's  Kitchen,"  where  the  saint, 
while  preparing  the  convent-dinner,  is  seized  with  an  ecstasy  and 
floats  up  through  the  kitchen  ceiling,  utterly  regardless  of  pots  and 
pans,  leaving  his  culinary  duties  to  attendant  angels,  one  of  whom  is 
shelling  peas,  and  another  setting  the  table.  Murillo's  colder  style  is 
exemplified  by  a  ragged  but  happy  beggar-boy,  sitting  on  the  floor 
with  a  pitcher  and  a  basket  of  fruit  beside  him,  engaged  in  an  occu- 
pation which  the  French  catalogue  cleverly  renders  as  "  cherchant  a 
detrutre  ce  qui  I' incommode."  Three  portraits  and  a  portrait-group 
are  ascribed  to  Velasquez,  and  a  "  Christ  bearing  the  Cross "  to 
Morales.  Two  Zurbarans  have  been  supplied  from  the  collection  of 
Napoleon  III. 

Remains  of  German,  Dutch,  and  Flemish  art  are  much  more  nu- 
merous. All.  spectators  will  be  delighted  with  the  two  bright  and 
charming  landscapes  of  Cuyp,  on  the  right-hand  side  of  the  gallery. 
Quintin  Matsys's  "  Money-Changer  and  his  Wife,"  or,  as  it  is  often 
translated,  "  Banker  and  his  Wife,"  arrests  us  by  its  characteristic 
faces.  Good  portraits  by  Holbein,  Rembrandt,  Van  der  Heist,  the 
Pourbus  family,  Philippe  de  Champagne,  and  other  artists,  are  tol- 
erably abundant.  But  all  are  overshadowed  by  Rubens's  stupendous 
series  in  commemoration  of  Marie  de  Medici,  where  a  vast  confu- 
sion of  life-sized  figures,  either  nude  and  rosy,  or  robed  in  splendid 
drapery  and  jewels,  are  boldly  grouped  upon  immense  canvases,  and 
illustrate  the  life  and  fame  of  the  magnificent  queen.  Her  "  Educa- 
tion," "  Marriage,"  and  the  "  Birth  of  Louis  XIII.,"  are  commonly 


THE  GALLERY  OF  THE  LOUVRE.       S2g 

considered  as  superior  to  the  others.  Under  these  large  pictures  are 
the  small  genre  scenes  and  landscapes  on  which  the  Dutch  and  Ger- 
mans dote ;  comprising  rural  and  marine  views  by  Ruysdael,  Van 
der  Xeer,  Paul  Potter,  Breughel,  Berghen,  Backhuysen,  and  Van  de 
Velde  ;  "  Victories  of  Louis  XIV.,"  by  Van  der  Meulen  ;  and  genre 
scenes  by  Teniers,  Van  Ostade,  Mieris,  Metsu,  Netscher,  Terburg, 
Dow,  and  Van  der  Werff.  Among  the  best  of  the  latter  may  be 
mentioned  Teniers 's  "  Prodigal  Son,"  and  "  Temptation  of  St.  An- 
thony;" Metsu's  "Vegetable  Market  at  Amsterdam;"  Terburg's 
"  Music-Lesson  ;  "  Dow's  "  Reading  the  Bible  ;  "  Van  der  Werff's 
"  Magdalene,"  and  Schalken's  "  Ceres  seeking  her  Daughter  Pros- 
erpine by  Torchlight."  Neef  s  "  Interiors  "  and  Van  Huysam's 
"  Flower-Pieces  "are  extraordinarily  good  of  their  kind.  Rembrandt's 
portrait  of  himself,  in  tones  of  clear,  golden  brown,  is  exceedingly 
beautiful.  Notice  also  the  portraits  by  Rubens  and  Vandyck,  par- 
ticularly Vandyck's  likeness  of  himself,  his  oft-repeated  "  Children 
of  Charles  I.,"  the  "Duke  of  Bavaria  and  Prince  Rupert,"  "Don 
Francisco  de  Moncada,"  and  two  family  pendants.  Another  picture 
by  Vandyck,  at  the  extreme  end  of  the  gallery,  usually  overlooked  by 
critics,  shows  a  Madonna  and  Child  adored  by  two  devout  grandees 
— male  and  female.  The  expression  of  worship  and  rapt  consecra- 
tion in  the  husband's  face  is  touching  to  behold  ;  while  the  wife 
kneels  in  stolid  uprightness,  patiently  waiting  the  cooling  of  her  part- 
ner's fervor. 

The  residue  of  the  foreign  pictures,  with  the  exception  of  the  Le 
Caze  collection  (which  comprises  nothing  of  thrilling  interest)  and  a 
saloon  with  seven  frescoes  by  Luini,  transferred  to  canvas,  are  con- 
tained in  another  noble  apartment,  called  the  Galerie  des  Sept  Afi- 
tres,  opening  from  the  right-hand  side  of  the  Grand  Gallery,  near 
Fra  Angelico's  "  Coronation  of  the  Virgin."  In  this  room  we  dis- 
cover Andrea  Mantegna's  famous  "  Virgin  of  Victory,"  his  singular 
"  Crucifixion,"  and  "  Dance  of  the  Muses."  Here,  too,  is  a  quaint 
and  stiff  "  Madonna  and  Saints,"  by  Perugino  ;  the  fair,  spiritual, 
and  blue-eyed  "  Portrait  of  a  Youth,"  by  Raphael,  often  but  falsely 
designated  as  the  painter's  own  portrait ;  a  "  St.  John  in  the  Wilder- 
ness ; "  a  "  Queen  Joan  of  Aragon,"  ascribed  to  Raphael ;  and  his 
lovely  "  St.  Margaret,"  in  robes  of  celestial  blue,  with  a  little  red 
mantle  thrown  lightly  across  her  shoulder,  stepping  courageously  for- 
ward over  the  prostrate  dragon  with  her  martyr's  palm-branch.  This 


530  APPENDIX. 

composition  has  been  much  injured,  and  even  its  authenticity  is  not 
so  clear  as  might  be  desired  ;  but  no  face  from  Raphael's  brush,  ex- 
cept that  of  the  Sistine  Madonna,  is  so  preeminently  pure  and  ethe- 
real. 

A  "  St.  John  Baptist,"  attributed  to  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  is  so  very 
suave  and  smiling  as  to  strangely  resemble  a  Bacchus.  Others  as- 
signed to  him  are  almost  incurably  damaged  by  time  and  restorations. 
The  "  Vierge  aux  Rochers,"  which  makes  a  fascinating  photograph, 
is  probably  from  his  own  design,  but  finished  by  some  inferior  work- 
man, being  dark  and  disagreeable  in  color.  Titian  has  some  strong 
and  deep-toned  portraits ;  a  pastoral  Holy  Family,  known  as  "  La 
Vierge  au  Lapin  "  from  the  white  rabbit  in  the  foreground ;  and  a 
"  Supper  at  Emmaus,"  where  it  has  been  suggested  that  the  two 
companion  pilgrims  are  Cardinal  Ximenes  and  the  Emperor  Charles 
V.,  while  the  page  who  serves  them  was  studied  from  the  young 
Philip  II.  of  Spain.  Such  tradition  has  no  foundation  in  fact.  His 
portrait  of  "  Francis  I."  is  said  to  have  been  painted  from  a  medal, 
and  not  from  life  ;  but  the  medal  must  have  been  very  animated  and 
expressive.  Further  admirable  examples  of  the  Venetian  school  are 
seen  in  Gian  Bellini's  "  Holy  Family  ; "  Paul  Veronese's  "  Ahasuerus 
and  Esther  ; "  Cima's  "  Virgin  and  Saints  ;  "  Paris  Bordone's  "  Ver- 
tumnus  and  Pomona  ;  "  and  Palma  Vecchio's  soft,  simple,  and  brill- 
iant "  Adoration  of  the  Shepherds." 

Their  Venetian  glow  is  equaled  by  Fra  Bartolomeo's  splendid 
"  Angelic  Salutation  "  and  "  Virgin  with  Saints,"  whose  rich  inten- 
sity of  color  has  nothing  glaring  or  harsh.  Albertinelli's  and  Lo- 
renzo di  Credi's  "  Virgin  and  Child  "  are  sacred  and  sweet ;  and 
Andrea  del  Sarto's  "  Charity  "  is  interesting,  not  only  for  its  techni- 
cal merit,  but  from  the  circumstances  of  his  sad  story,  and  its  like- 
ness to  his  alluring  wife. 

Valuable  as  is  this  collection  of  old  masters,  France  cannot  be 
accused  of  neglecting  the  works  of  native  artists.  About  eight  sa- 
loons, well  filled,  attest  her  appreciation  of  her  own  painters.  Some 
of  these,  indeed,  are  devoted  to  one  single  man  of  genius.  Thus, 
for  instance,  twenty-two  large  pictures  on  the  "  History  of  St.  Bruno  " 
(in  which  the  "  Death  of  St.  Bruno  "  is  most  forcible)  occupy  an 
entire  apartment.  The  same  is  true  of  Joseph  Vernet's  fifteen  graph- 
ic marine  views  of  the  "  Harbors  of  France,"  as  well  as  of  a  smaller 
but  highly-decorated  saloon  adorned  with  a  series  of  "  Scenes  from 


THE   GALLERY  OF  THE  LOUVRE. 

the  Life  of  Alexander  the  Great,"  by  Charles  Lebrun,  court-painter 
to  Louis  XIV.  They  were  assigned  this  honorable  position  because 
the  victories  of  Alexander  were  flatteringly  supposed  to  allegorize 
the  triumphs  of  the  Grand  Monarch. 

The  early  specimens  of  the  French  school  gathered  in  the  Louvre 
are  curious  though  not  abundant.  Probably  the  most  ancient  is  a 
"Christ  taken  down  from  the  Cross,"  dating  about  1370  or  1380. 
It  was  formerly  in  the  abbey  of  St.-Germain-des-Pres,  then  at  St.- 
Denis.  The  background  represents,  not  only  a  French  landscape, 
but  the  towers  of  the  Louvre  and  adjacent  buildings.  Some  have 
ascribed  it 'to  Van  Eyck,  some  to  a  Venetian  painter,  but  Villot 
thinks  it  was  done  by  a  French  artist  who  had  been  under  Flemish 
tuition.  Most  interesting  historical  portraits  of  the  age  and  school 
of  Clouet,  all  marked  by  a  touch  of  Holbein's  realism,  are  in  the 
same  apartment ;  as  are  likewise  two  singular  pictures  of  court- 
balls,  given  in  the  reign  of  Henri  III.,  where  the  figures  of  Catharine 
de  Medici,  Margaret  of  Navarre,  the  Duke  de  Mayenne,  and  other 
celebrities,  are  intended  as  portraits  from  life.  The  "Last 'Judg- 
ment," by  Cousin,  is  but  a  Liliputian  version  of  the  great  subject, 
with  bridges  and  temple,  and  a  superfluity  of  sixteenth-century 
landscape.  Vouet's  eight  pictures  have  more  genuine  solemnity  and 
riper  talent.  His  "  Presentation  in  the  Temple "  and  "  Roman 
Charity  "  are  carefully  finished  and  effective. 

Turning  to  more  modern  times,  we  enter  a  lofty  and  well-lighted 
hall  where  the  landscapes  of  Poussin  and  Claude  Lorraine  are  ad- 
vantageously displayed.  Here  are  Poussin 's  tender  and  mournful 
"  Arcadian  Shepherds,"  and  such  larger  but  less  pleasing  sacred 
and  classical  pieces  as  "  Rebecca  at  the  Well,"  the  "  Finding  of 
Moses,"  "  Manna  in  the  Desert,"  "  Triumph  of  Flora,"  and  the 
"  Four  Seasons."  The  concluding  season — "  Winter,"  or  "  The  Del- 
uge " — was  executed  by  Poussin  at  the  age  of  seventy-one,  and  is 
the  last  relic  of  his  genius. 

The  serene  and  sunny  landscapes  of  Claude  are  a  perpetual  joy 
to  the  beholder.  Nowhere  do  we  find  such  light,  such  atmosphere, 
such  an  insight  into  the  poetry  of  Nature.  Their  rocks,  perhaps, 
may  not  be  rugged  or  sharp  enough,  nor  their  foliage  botanically 
veined  ;  but  here  are  the  very  skies  and  fields  of  Eden,  and  we  may 
dream  ourselves  blest  inhabitants.  His  marine  views  are  unsurpassed. 
Golden  sunshine,  golden  water,  and  golden  mist — happy  shores  be- 


S32 


APPENDIX. 


yond — and  ships  that  sail  into  the  sunset,  enchant  us  with  a  beauty 
ever  new  because  ever  suggestive.  Near  these  landscapes  hang 
other  large  and  small  French  pictures  of  the  period  ;  among  them 
one  of  Le  Sueur's  masterpieces,  "  St.  Paul  preaching  at  Ephesus," 
which  used  to  be  annually  exhibited  at  Notre-Dame  every  ist  of 
May;  Mignard's  "  Vierge  a  la  Grappe,"  a  graceful  composition  re- 
minding us  of  Carracci's  "  Virgin  of  the  Cherries  ; "  Mignard's  "  St. 
Cecilia,"  with  turban  and  harp  ;  "  Lebrun's  "  Crucifixion,"  with  la- 
menting but  theatrical  angels,  and  the  crown  of  France  reposing  on 
a  blue-velvet  cushion  below  the  cross  ;  Lebrun's  "  Magdalene,"  seat- 
ed before  a  mirror,  said  to  be  the  penitent  Mademoiselle  La  Valliere  ; 
his  holy  family  called  the  "  Benedicite  ;  "  and  a  number  of  excellent 
portraits,  such  as  Rigaud's  "  Louis  XIV.  "  and  "Philip  V.  of  Spain," 
Mignard's  "  Madame  de  Maintenon,"  "  Louis  of  France,"  and  "  The 
Grandchildren  of  Louis  XIV.,"  and  Le  Brun's  portrait  of  himself  in 
his  youth.  A  whole  day  might  be  profitably  employed  in  studying 
the  portraits  of  the  Louvre,  for  in  no  museum  do  we  meet  such  an 
assemblage  of  eminent  and  interesting  personages. 

Two  spacious  saloons  are  reserved  for  the  exposition  of  modern 
French  art.  In  the  Salle  des  Sept  Chemtnees  are  placed  some 
large  classical  works  by  David — "  Belisarius  demanding  Alms,"  the 
"  Sabine  Women  throwing  themselves  between  the  Roman  and  Sa- 
bine  Combatants,"  and  "  Leonidas  at  Thermopylae."  Classic  attitudes, 
antique  costumes,  polished  armor,  and  vehement  but  mannered  ac- 
tion, would  seem  to  endow  these  paintings  with  historic  accuracy ; 
but  one  must  smile  to  perceive  how  far  the  French  element  outshines 
the  Roman.  David  highly  esteemed  his  "  Ccontest  at  Thermopylae," 
and  remarked,  waith  naive  self-conceit,  "  No  other  but  myself  could 
have  conceived  such  a  Leonidas  !  "  His  portraits  of  Pope  Pius  VII., 
and  of  Madame  Recamier,  should  not  be  overlooked. 

More  powerful  than  David's  cold  memories  of  antiquity  is  Geri- 
cault's  painful  but  impressive  "  Shipwreck  of  the  Medusa."  It  is  a 
raft  full  of  dead  and  dying  men  ;  the  raft  filling  nearly  all  the  canvas, 
and  the  figures  of  life-size.  In  the  extremity  of  their  despair  help  has 
come,  and  they  are  just  signaling  a  sail ;  but  the  ghastly  horror  of 
the  scene  is  appalling.  A  fiery  "  Hussar,"  and  wounded  "  Cuiras- 
sier," by  the  same  artist,  hang  right  and  left  of  the  "  Shipwreck." 
The  other  two  rides  of  the  room  are  mainly  devoted  to  the  works  of 
David's  followers  and  pupils.  Girodet  Trioson's  "  Interment  of  Ata- 


THE  GALLERY  OF  THE  LOUVRE. 

joO 

la,"  from  its  wan  coloring,  tragic  treatment,  and  the  pathos  of  its 
lifeless  form,  will  be  sure  to  attract  the  spectator.  The  sentiment  is 
well  carried  out,  even  to  the  inscription  upon  the  rock:  "I  have 
passed  away  as  a  flower  ;  I  am  withered  as  the  grass  of  the  field." 
Trioson's  "  Endymion  "  is,  however,  only  an  episode  of  mythology 
affectedly  translated  into  French  painting ;  while  his  "  Deluge  "  is 
extremely  poor.  Guerin's  "  Marcus  Sextus  "  and  "  Clytemnestra  and 
Agamemnon  "  are  his  most  forcible  pictures.  In  the  latter,  the  hero 
is  sleeping  while  Clytemnestra  approaches,  and  the  scene  is  lighted 
by  a  lamp  half  concealed  behind  a  red  curtain.  Gerard's  "  Psyche 
receiving  the  First  Kiss  of  Love  "  is  piquant  and  pretty,  but  suggests 
the  contrast  of  Canova's  much  more  pleasing  group.  Gros's  "  Battle 
of  Eylau,"  and  "  Bonaparte  in  the  Plague-Hospital  of  Jaffa,"  are  works 
of  historic  value,  and  had,  in  their  day,  an  immense  success  ;  though 
the  figure  of  Napoleon,  in  the  last  composition,  is  not  so  imposing  as 
was  customary  in  the  pictures  of  that  period.  Granet's  "  Lower 
Church  of  St.  Francis,  at  Assisi,"  is  not  only  remarkable  for  the  in- 
terest of  its  locality,  but  is  one  of  the  most  satisfactory  examples  of  the 
method  of  this  talented  French  painter  of  interiors  ;  while  Prudhon's 
allegorical  "  Crime  pursued  by  Justice  and  Vengeance  "  is,  in  its  way, 
an  equally  characteristic  specimen  of  the  distinguished  artist  who,  in 
practice  and  principles,  was  so  opposed  to  David. 

Another  apartment,  near  the  staircase,  continues  the  French  col- 
lection of  modern  pictures.  Among  its  largest-sized  paintings  may 
be  enumerated  David's  early  republican  composition,  "  The  Oath  of 
the  Horatii,"  ordered  by  Louis  XVI. ;  Gros's  "  Francis  I.  and  Charles 
V.  at  St.-Denis,"  Guerin's  "  vtneas  relating  to  Dido  the  Fate  of  Troy," 
and  Gerard's  "  Entry  of  Henry  IV.  into  Paris,"  deserving  of  careful 
attention  from  its  vivid  portrait  groups  and  the  accuracy  of  its  sur- 
roundings. The  king's  beautiful  favorite,  Gabrielle  d'Estrees,  is  rep- 
resented on  a  balcony  above,  rejoicing  in  Henry's  triumph. 

In  contrast  to  these  we  have  the  genre  scenes  and  sweet  female 
figures  of-Greuze,  whose  masterpieces  are  here  brought  together. 
Though  once  refused  admission  to  the  French  Academy,  the  Louvre 
is  now  proud  to  exhibit  these  valuable  works,  so  pure  in  conception, 
tender  in  flesh-tints,  and  correct  in  finish.  The  "  Broken  Pitcher," 
the  "  Paternal  Curse,"  the  "  Chastised  Son,"  and  the  "  Village  Bride," 
are  simple  but  renowned  pieces,  whose  natural  grace  and  attraction 
exceed  those  of  many  classic  canvases.  The  same  may  be  less 


534 


APPENDIX. 


strongly  said  of  some  of  Madame  Lebrun's  pictures,  especially  her 
lovely  portrait  of  herself  and  daughter. 

Coming  still  nearer  to  our  own  times,  Leopold  Robert's  large 
"  Campagna  Scenes  "  are  beautiful  and  poetic  renderings  of  Nature. 
Every  group  in  his  "  Reapers  in  the  Pontine  Marshes  "  and  "  Festival 
of  the  Madonna  del  Arco,"  is  as  full  of  grace  as  his  landscape  is  full 
of  charm.  At  the  close  of  the  year  1874  new  transfers  were  made  to 
the  Louvre  from  the  Museum  of  the  Luxembourg ;  and  the  traveler 
may  now  admire  Vernet's  "  Barriere  de  Clichy,"  and  "  Meeting  of 
Raphael  and  Michael  Angelo ;"  the  strong  coloring  and  passionate 
force  of  Delacroix's  "  Massacre  of  Scio,"  "Algerian  Women,"  and 
"  Jewish  Wedding  at  Morocco  ;  "  and  the  pathos,  beauty,  and  power 
of  Paul  Delaroche's  "  Young  Princes  in  the  Tower,"  and  "  Death  of 
Queen  Elizabeth  " — regretting  only  that  so  few  of  this  artist's  works 
should  be  owned  by  the  nation.  As  the  writer  of  these  pages  has 
not  visited  the  Louvre  since  1874,  a  more  detailed  account  of  these 
later  additions  to  the  gallery  cannot  be  given. 

THE   GALLERY   OF   LONDON, 

Apart  from  its  intrinsic  merit,  is  of  extreme  interest  to  an  American 
traveler,  because  it  is  usually  the  first  foreign  collection  of  pictures 
which  it  is  his  privilege  to  visit.  Here  he  beholds  the  creations  of 
Raphael,  Titian,  and  Correggio,  and  sees  before  him  antique  altar- 
pieces  and  precious  relics  of  mediaeval  art.  But,  without  detracting 
from  the  value  of  these,  or  from  the  earnestness  with  which  they 
should  be  studied,  the  stranger  must  remember  that  English  paint- 
ings form  a  peculiar  attraction  of  the  English  gallery,  and  that,  while 
he  can  elsewhere  grow  familiar  with  Italian  and  Flemish  master- 
pieces, he  will  not  find  on  the  Continent  the  superb  landscapes  of 
Turner,  the  portraits  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  or  the  works  of  Ho- 
garth, Gainsborough,  and  Landseer.  Let  him,  therefore,  carefully 
acquaint  himself  with  their  beauties. 

The  London  National  Gallery,  accessible  to  the  public  except  dur- 
ing the  month  of  October,  is  located  in  Trafalgar  Square,  though  the 
cartoons  of  Raphael,  from  which  the  Vatican  tapestries  were  woven, 
and  fine  modern  paintings,  including  the  celebrated  Sheepshanks  col- 
lection, hang  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum.  Over  six  hundred 
foreign  pictures,  and  nearly  an  equal  number  of  the  productions  of 


THE   GALLERY  OF  LONDON. 

j-jj 

British  masters,  are  thus  exhibited  to  the  people.  The  Trafalgar 
Square  building  is  not  imposing,  nor  so  commodious  as  might  be  de- 
sired ;  but,  when  a  nation  possesses  the  jewels,  the  decoration  of  the 
casket  may  be  trusted  to  time.  In  this  cursory  sketch,  as  in  all 
descriptions  of  similar  galleries,  only  the  leading  works  are  briefly 
indicated. 

The  pictures  are  distributed  through  eleven  rooms  of  varied  di- 
mensions, beginning  with  the  "Virgin  and  Child,"  by  Margaritone 
of  Arezzo,  and  other  old  specimens  of  the  Italian  school,  among 
which  several  large  altar-pieces  are  conspicuous.  It  is  a  pity  that  it 
was  deemed  necessary  to  restore  these  so  extensively,  and  to  varnish 
them  quite  so  brightly.  Andrea  Orcagna's  "  Coronation  of  the  Vir- 
gin, with  Adoring  Saints  and  Angels,"  painted  on  wood,  in  distemper, 
not  in  oil-colors,  should  be  particularly  noticed.  The  attitudes  are 
stiff,  as  is  usual  in  such  mediaeval  examples,  but  the  Virgin's  head  is 
beautiful,  and  the  draperies  rich  and  ornate.  The  Venitian  Carlo 
Crivelli  has  similar  immense  compositions,  also  on  wood,  and  re- 
moved, like  Orcagna's,  from  Italian  churches.  The  most  pleasing  of 
these  is  an  elaborate  altar-piece,  in  three  stages  and  thirteen  compart- 
ments, displaying  an  enthroned  Madonna,  surrounded  by  nearly  all 
the  saints  in  the  calendar.  In  another  extraordinary  Venetian  altar- 
painting  of  "The  Circumcision,"  by  Marziale,  a  white  poodle-dog, 
with  red  collar,  is  sitting  on  the  ground  below  the  stately  Virgin.  A 
small  "Triptych"  is  ascribed  to  Duccio,  of  Sienna;  a  "Madonna," 
to  Cimabue,  and  a  fragment  of  "  Two  Apostles,"  to  Giotto.  Filippo 
and  Filippino  Lippi  are  agreeably  represented  in  sacred  pieces,  har- 
monious and  warm  in  color,  and  soft  and  graceful  in  expression.  An 
'-'  Adoration  of  the  Magi  "  is  especially  brilliant. 

A  narrow  passage,  adorned  by  a  group  of  Gibson's  statuary,  and 
two  Madonnas  from  the  brush  of  Lorenzo  di  Credi,  connects  with  a 
saloon  where  we  may  admire  another  large  altar-piece  of  the  "  Na- 
tivity," dated  1525;  Francia's  "Virgin  and  Child,"  the  same  subject 
by  Garofalo,  Correggio's  "  Instruction  of  Cupid,  or  Mercury  teaching 
Cupid  to  read,"  Giulio  Romano's  "  Infancy  of  Jupiter,"  and  a  few 
such  Venetian  paintings  as  Paul  Veronese's  "  Adoration  of  the  Wise 
Men,"  where  sixteen  life-size  figures,  with  angels,  cherubs,  camels, 
and  horses,  are  picturesquely  gathered  among  Roman  ruins,  and  his 
"  Family  of  Darius,"  in  which  all  the  chief  personages  are  portraits 
of  the  Pisani  family  in  splendid  Venetian  costumes.  "  The  Conse- 
35 


536 


APPENDIX. 


cration  of  St.  Nicholas"  is  less  impressive.  Sebastian  del  Piombo's 
"  Resurrection  of  Lazarus  "  is  also  a  most  important  production.  It 
was  originally  executed  at  Rome,  in  rivalry  with  Raphael's  "  Trans- 
figuration," and  the  bold  outlines  of  its  figures  were  popularly  be- 
lieved to  have  been  the  work  of  Michael  Angelo.  Titian's  "  Bacchus 
and  Ariadne,"  Moretto's  "  St.  Bernardino  and  Virgin,"  and  Carpac- 
cio's  vivid  votive  piece  of  a  "  Madonna  adored  by  a  Kneeling  Doge," 
are  in  the  same  apartment,  together  with  Parmagiano's  "  Vision  of 
St.  Jerome  " — the  picture  which  was  on  his  easel  and  compelled  the 
homage  of  hostile  soldiery,  during  the  sack  of  Rome,  under  the  Con- 
stable de  Bourbon. 

Quitting  these,  we  next  come  to  Francia's  pathetic  "  Pieta,"  and 
mild,  open-browed  "  Virgin  and  Child."  Here,  too,  is  a  very  satis- 
factory example  of  Perugino's  manner,  consisting  of  part  of  an  altar- 
piece,  in  three  compartments,  from  a  convent  in  Pavia.  In  the  centre 
we  observe  the  Virgin  ecstatically  worshiping  the  Child,  who  lies 
before  her,  while  on  one  compartment  is  the  archangel  Michael  in 
armor;  on  the  other,  the  guardian  archangel  Raphael,  leading  the 
boy  Tobias.  Mantegna's  "  Enthroned  Madonna  adored  by  St.  John 
Baptist  and  the  Magdalene,"  is  a  noble  composition,  in  which  the 
upturned  face  of  the  Magdalene  wears  a  lovely  expression  of  rever- 
ence and  confidence.  A  "  Christ  disputing  with  the  Doctors,"  cata- 
logued as  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  should  be  assigned  to  his  pupil 
Luini,  but  is  perfect  in  finish  and  thoroughly  Lombard  in  style.  Cor- 
reggio's  "Ecce  Homo"  shows  us  Christ  bound  and  led  forth  as  the 
Man  of  Sorrows.  The  Virgin  is  apparently  fainting  in  agony.  The 
head  of  a  soldier  is  visible  on  the  right,  while  on  the  left  Pilate  looks 
from  a  window  and  points  to  the  cross.  Venetian  portraits  by  Bel- 
lini, Paris  Bordone,  Moroni,  and  Titian,  are  tolerably  abundant,  par- 
ticularly Bellini's  "  Doge,"  Moroni's  "  Tailor,"  and  Titian's  "  Head 
of  Ariosto."  An  old  copy  of  Raphael's  "  Pope  Julius  "  is  faithfully 
rendered,  but  Raphael's  gems  are  reserved  for  the  adjacent  room. 

With  "St.  Catharine  of  Alexandria"  we  are  already  acquainted 
by  engravings.  She  stands,  leaning  on  her  wheel,  with  a  landscape 
background.  The  proportions  of  the  figure  are  full,  the  face  inno- 
cent and  resigned.  A  half-length  "Virgin  and  Infant,"  seated  under 
an  arch,  the  Child  holding  a  flower,  and  the  little  St.  John  a  cross,  is 
well  known  as- the  "  Garvagh  Madonna."  A  small  panel  entitled  the 
"  Vision  of  a  Knight,"  is  an  interesting  relic  of  Raphael's  youthful 


THE   GALLERY  OF  LONDON. 

years.  Two  unfinished  tempera-paintings  are  attributed  to  Michael 
Angelo.  Forthcoming  documents  relating  to  his  life  and  works  will 
probably  decide  their  genuineness.  "The  Dream  of  Human  Life," 
which  this  gallery  also  places  under  the  name  of  the  great  Florentine 
master,  was  doubtless  taken  from  his  designs  by  his  favorite,  Sebastian 
del  Piombo.  Gian  Bellini's  "  Madonna  and  Child  "  is  marked  by  his 
usual  serenity  of  features.  Andrea  Mantegna's  "  Triumph  of  Scipio  " 
is  executed  entirely  in  neutral  tints,  or,  to  use  the  technical  term,  in 
"  chtaro-oscuro."  Correggio's  "  Holy  Family,"  or  "  Vierge  au  Panier," 
so  called  from  the  conspicuous  work-basket,  is  a  domestic  scene  of 
Palestine,  with  Joseph  laboring  as  a  carpenter  in  the  background. 
"The  Agony  of  Christ  in  the  Garden  "  is  a  small  but  singular  ex- 
ample of  Correggio's  'mastery  of  light  and  shade.  The  glory  of 
heaven  beams  full  upon  the  Lord,  but  the  attendant  angel  is  only 
illuminated  by  light  reflected  from  the  person  of  Christ.  Studies  of 
"  Angels'  Heads,"  after  Correggio,  are  considered  by  some  critics  as 
designs  once  intended  for  frescoes  at  Parma.  A  bust-figure  of  Christ. 
"  Salvator  Mundi,"  by  Antonello  da  Messina,  lustrous  in  tint,  and 
draped  in  crimson  and  blue,  was  brought  to  London  from  Genoa, 
and  is  one  of  the  earliest  specimens  of  oil-painting  in  the  world. 

Among  the  attractions  of  the  next  saloon  are  Murillo's  "  Spanish 
Peasant,"  executed  in  his  early  style,  his  "Holy  Family,"  of  golden 
tone,  and  "St.  John  with  the  Lamb."  The  latter  is  a  dark-eyed 
Spanish  boy,  charming,  but  by  no  means  divine,  embracing  a  lamb 
with  one  hand  and  pointing  to  heaven  with  the  other.  Not  far  dis- 
tant are  Zurbaran's  maniacal  "  Monk,"  with  a  skull,  and  Velasquez's 
"Adoration  of  the  Shepherds,"  both  of  which  were  purchased  some 
twenty  years  since  from  Louis  Philippe's  collection  in  the  Louvre. 
"  Philip  IV.,  of  Spain,  hunting  the  Wild-Boar,"  is,  however,  more 
characteristic  of  Velasquez,  who  had  little  taste  for  biblical  subjects. 
Cima's  "  Incredulity  of  St.  Thomas  "  is  forcible  and  well  colored. 
Annibale  Carracci's  "  Christ  appearing  to  St.  Peter  "  is  an  adapta- 
tion of  the  Roman  legend  of  St.  Peter,  flying  from  persecution,  met 
by  the  Saviour  bearing  his  cross.  On  asking,  "  Doming,  quo  vadisf" 
—"Lord,  whither  goest  thou?"— he  was  answered,  "To  Rome  to 
be  crucified  again,"  whereupon  the  apostle  returned  to  the  city,  and 
suffered  martyrdom  under  Nero. 

Here  are  likewise  a  couple  of  pretty  "  Madonnas,"  by  Sassoferrato  ; 
an  "Infant  Christ  and  St.  John,"  as  well  as  a  "Magdalene"  and 


538 


APPENDIX. 


"  Ecce  Homo,  by  Guido  ;  a  "  Bacchanalian  Dance,"  and  other  clas- 
sical efforts,  by  Poussin ;  the  mediocre  landscape  of  "  Mercury  and 
the  Woodman,"  by  Salvator  Rosa;  and  some  of  the  most  exquisite 
Claudes  in  Europe.  Two  of  the  latter,  "  The  Embarkation  of  the 
Queen  of  Sheba,"  and  "  The  Meeting  of  Isaac  and  Rebecca,"  hang 
on  either  side  of  the  door — placed  by  Turner's  own  desire — as  pen- 
dants to  his  landscapes  of"  Dido  building  Carthage  "  and  "  The  Sun 
rising  through  a  Mist."  Of  course  Turner's  object  was  to  prove  his 
superiority  to  Claude.  How  far  it  was  attained  must  be  left  to  the 
judgment  of  the  spectator. 

Two  succeeding  apartments,  together  with  a  cabinet,  are  devoted 
to  Dutch,  German,  and  Flemish  pictures.  These  are  not  chronologi- 
cally arranged  ;  but,  as  they  are  within  comparatively  small  compass, 
it  will  be  worth  the  trouble  to  study  them  chronologically,  commenc- 
ing with  the  cabinet  where  we  discover,  among  other  curious  remains, 
a  "Sancta  Veronica,  or  Image  of  our  Lord,"  by  Meister  Wilhelm,  of, 
Cologne ;  a  "  Group  of  Saints,"  on  a  gold  ground,  by  Meister  Stephan ; 
and  a  little  "  Madonna  and  Child,"  ascribed  to  Margaret  Van  Eyck, 
the  artist  sister  of  Hubert  and  Jan  Van  Eyck.  Her  famous  brother, 
Jan,  has  left  a  most  valuable  and  authentic  composition  called  "  Por- 
traits of  Jean  Arnolfini  and  his  Wife,"  standing,  with  joined  hands, 
in  a  room  whose  wonderfully-finished  background  displays  a  bed,  a 
chandelier,  a  window,  and  a  mirror,  with  surrounding  objects  re- 
flected in  the  mirror,  and  miniatures  set  in  its  frame.  Two  other 
realistic  likenesses,  one  of  which  is  spoken  of  as  "  The  Turbaned 
Portrait,"  from  the  handkerchief  twisted  as  a  turban  around  the  head, 
perpetuate  his  memory.  Fragmentary  altar-pieces,  by  the  master  of 
the  Lyversberg  "  Passion,"  the  master  of  the  Cologne  "  Crucifixion," 
and  the  master  of  Liesborn,  are  very  quaint  and  full  of  detail.  In 
one  of  them  St.  Peter  stands  holding  in  his  right  hand  gold  and  silver 
keys,  and  in  his  left  a  pair  of  spectacles,  while  St.  Dorothea,  beside 
him,  bears  a  basket  of  roses.  Quintin  Matsys  has  bust-figures  of 
"Christ  and  the  Virgin,"  on  a  gold  ground.  The  Holbein  family  is 
only  represented  by  Sigmund  Holbein,  uncle  of  Hans  the  Younger, 
in  the  portrait  of  a  prim,  courtly  lady,  with  a  fly  on  her  cap.  Martin 
Schoen's  "  Death  of  the  Virgin  "  gives  the  traditionary  rendering  of 
that  legend.  Albrecht  Diirer's  "  Portrait  of  a  Senator  "  is  calm  and 
powerful,  gray-bearded  and  purple-robed,  but  hard  and  German  in 
outline.  Cranach's  half-length  "  Portrait  of  a  Young  Lady,"  gayly 


THE   GALLERY  OF  LONDON.  -  — 

dressed,  is  equally  characteristic,  and  might  serve  to  illustrate  the 
difference  between  Northern  and  Southern  female  types.  A  "  Depo- 
sition in  the  Tomb  "  is  attributed  to  Roger  Van  der  Weyden,  and  a 
few  portraits,  or  sacred  figures,  to  that  mythical  artist  Van  der  Wey- 
den the  Younger. 

Rubens  has  not  been  forgotten  by  the  collectors  of  the  English 
Gallery.  An  allegorical  composition  of  "  Peace  and  War,"  painted 
for  King  Charles  I.,  is  one  of  his  best-preserved  efforts,  though  much 
less  famous  than  his  brilliant  "  Judgment  of  Paris."  "  The  Brazen 
Serpent "  is  a  grand  and  animated  subject,  repeated  from  a  similar 
example  in  the  Museum  of  Madrid.  "  The  Residence  of  Rubens  "  is 
a  bright  morning  landscape.  Other  natural  and  mythological  scenes 
are  near,  but  none  are  so  attractive  as  the  portrait  of  a  lady  in  black, 
with  crimson  sleeves,  black  hat  and  white  feather,  known  as  "  The 
Straw-Hat,"  or  "  Chapeau  de  Faille,"  which  has  but  lately  become 
the  property  of  the  nation.  Vandyck  has  his  own  portrait,  the  like- 
ness of  Rubens,  the  "  Emperor  Theodosius  refused  Admittance  into 
the  Church,"  and  a  fine,  noble  head  of  a  gray-haired  man  between 
fifty  and  sixty,  commonly  called  "  Gevartius."  Teniers  exhibits  to  us 
his  "  Chateau  at  Perck,"  as  a  companion  to  "  The  Residence  of  Ru- 
bens," four  landscapes  of  "  The  Seasons,"  and  several  interiors  and 
genre  pieces,  the  best  of  which  are  "  The  Music  Party,"  "  The 
Backgammon  Players,"  "The  Misers,"  and  "Dives,  or  the  Rich 
Man  in  Hell,"  frequently  termed  "  Le  Mauvais  Riche." 

Specimens  of  the  Dutch  school  are  generally  moderate  in  size,  but 
excellent  in  quality.  Landscapes  by  Cuyp,  Ruysdael,  Hobbema,  and 
Van  der  Neer ;  marine  views  by  Backhuysen  and  Van  de  Velde,  and 
interiors  by  De  Hooghe,  are  marked  by  constant  fidelity  to  Nature, 
depth  of  tone,  and  patience  of  finish.  Rembrandt  fills  one  side  of  a 
room  with  his  pictures.  We  notice  his  own  likeness,  twice  repeated, 
first  at  the  age  of  thirty-two,  afterward  in  advanced  years,  both  with 
cap  on  head  and  coat  or  cloak  wrapped  round  him;  a  still  more 
striking  portrait  of  a  Jewish  rabbi,  and  an  old  lady  in  cap  and  ruff. 
A  landscape,  with  Tobit  and  the  angel ;  and  a  woman  wading  through 
a  stream,  holding  up  her  dress,  are  of  great  technical  merit.  "  The 
Adoration  of  the  Shepherds  "  is  supernaturally  effective  in  light  and 
shade,  while  the  "Woman  taken  in  Adultery"  is  delineated  with 
equal  strength  and  vividness.  "  The  woman,  dressed  in  white,  makes 
the  highest  lignt ;  the  gloom  of  the  temple,  with  its  mysterious  high 


54o  APPENDIX. 

altar,  the  deepest  shadow."  The  large  composition  of"  Christ  bless- 
ing Little  Children  "  is  simple  and  pleasing,  and  the  copy  of  the  Am- 
sterdam "  Night-Watch  "  gives,  in  reduced  proportions,  a  tolerably 
accurate  idea  of  its  famous  original.  Terburg's  "  Peace  of  Miinster  " 
is  a  marvelously-paintecl  memorial  of  the  Treaty  of  1648,  between 
Spain  and  the  United  Provinces.  It  teems  with  historic  portraits, 
and  sets  the  whole  event  before  our  modern  eyes.  Gerard  Dow's 
"  Poulterer's  Shop,"  Metsu's  "  Music-Lesson,"  Mieris's  repetition  of 
"  The  Lady  with  a  Parrot,"  Netscher's  "  Maternal  Instruction,"  and 
Terburg's  "Guitar-Lesson,"  are  favorable  examples  of  Dutch  genre 
scenes.  In  the  same  apartment  with  "  The  Guitar-Lesson "  are 
several  portraits  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  including  one  of  Dr.  John- 
son, which  seem  quite  strayed  and  lost  in  their  separation  from  their 
companions  of  the  English  school. 

Retracing  our  steps  to  the  saloon  of  early  Italian  paintings,  we 
pass  through  an  opposite  door  into  two  rooms  appropriated  to  the 
Turner  collection,  dear  to  readers  of  Ruskin  and  to  all  lovers  of  the 
beautiful.  These  works  were  willed  by  the  artist  to  the  nation,  and 
splendidly  exemplify  his  varied  style  through  every  period  of  his 
career.  Here  is  the  very  shrine  of  landscape-art,  for  nowhere  in  the 
Old  World  can  we  behold  the  beauties  of  Nature  so  faithfully  yet 
poetically  transferred  to  canvas.  The  pictures  of  Claude  are  the  only 
ones  which  compare  with  them  in  charm  ;  but  they  are  scattered  in 
small  numbers  through  many  a  gallery,  while  Turner's  hang  in  one 
array  of  concentrated  loveliness.  Each  traveler  will  select  his  own 
favorites,  but  the  majority  will  yield  the  palm  to  "  Childe  Harold's 
Pilgrimage,"  "The  Decline  of  Carthage,"  "Caligula's  Palace  and 
Bridge,"  "  The  Bay  of  Baias  with  Apollo  and  the  Sibyl,"  or  other 
romantic  Southern  landscapes.  "Calais  Pier"  and  "  The  Death  of 
Nelson  "  are  colder  in  tone,  but  more  realistic.  Exquisite  "  Views  of 
Venice  "  give  us  the  glow  and  glory  of  the  place ;  and  numerous  in- 
stances of  strange  experiments  in  intense  and  fantastic  color  are  seen 
on  every  side.  Among  the  most  celebrated  are  "  Ulysses  deriding 
Polyphemus,"  where  sky  and  ocean  are  one  brilliant  fusion  of  gold, 
scarlet,  and  crimson;  Wilkie's  "Burial  at  Sea,"  lit  by  midnight 
torches,  and  "  The  Fighting  Temeraire,"  of  which  Thackeray  writes  : 
"The  old  Temeraire  is  dragged  to  her  last  home  by  a  little,  spiteful, 
diabolical  steamer.  A  mighty  red  sun,  amid  a  host  of  flaring  clouds, 
sinks  to  rest  on  one  side  of  the  picture,  and  illuminates  a  river  that 


THE   GALLERY  OF  LONDON.  ,A, 

541 

seems  interminable,  and  a  countless  navy  that  fades  away  into  such 
wonderful  distance  as  never  was  painted  before.  The  little  demon 
of  a  steamer  is  belching  out  a  volume  of  foul,  lurid,  red-hot,  malig- 
nant smoke,  paddling  furiously,  and  lashing  up  the  water  round  about 
it ;  while,  behind  it,  a  cold-gray  moon,  looking  down  upon  it,  slow, 
sad,  and  majestic,  follows  the  brave  old  ship,  with  death,  as  it  were, 
written  on  her." 

A  final  saloon,  abundantly  filled,  accommodates  the  works  of  other 
English  artists.  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  does  not  depend  for  fame  upon 
his  portraits  alone,  but  is  also  represented  by  "  The  Banished  Lord," 
a  "  Holy  Family,"  "  Heads  of  Angels,"  "  Infant  Samuel,"  "  Snake  in 
the  Grass,"  and  "  Age  of  Innocence,"  all  of  which,  familiar  through 
photographs  and  engravings,  we  meet  as  well-remembered  friends. 
Hogarth's  admirable  series  of  "  Marriage  a  la  Mode  "  "  points  ;i 
moral  and  adorns  a  tale  "  to  the  spectator  of  to-day  as  aptly  as  it 
has  ever  done  to  past  generations.  Lawrence's  lady  portraits  are 
still  beautiful,  though  too  bland  and  inanimate.  Gainsborough's 
landscapes,  especially  the  "Market-Cart,"  are  the  very  ideal  of  rural 
England,  yet  they  are  here  secondary  in  attraction  to  his  graceful 
figure  of  "  Musidora  bathing  her  Feet,"  and  standing  portrait  of  Mrs. 
Siddons,  in  striped-blue  dress,  shawl,  and  muff",  her  bright  eyes  smil- 
ing out  from  under  an  enormous  bonnet. 

Landscapes  and  rustic  pieces  by  Wilson,  Constable,  Calcott,  Col- 
lins, Creswick,  and  Mulready,  illustrate  the  charms  of  home  scenery 
and  domestic  sports.  Wilkie's  " Blind  Fiddler "  and  "Village  Fes- 
tival" are  genial  though  elaborate  renderings  of  happy  every-day  life. 
His  "  Peep-o'-day  Boy's  Cabin  "  is  larger  and  effective,  and  his 
"  Preaching  of  John  Knox  "  is  a  graphic  chapter  of  Scottish  history. 
Leslie's  "  Uncle  Toby  and  the  Widow  "  and  "  Sancho  Panza  "  and 
Maclise's  "  Malvolio  and  the  Countess  "  are  sparkling  episodes  of 
humorous  genre.  Etty's  "  Bathers  "  are  delicately  yet  richly  colored, 
but  please  us  less  than  his  gay  impersonation  of  "  Youth  on  the  Prow 
and  Pleasure  at  the  Helm."  Eastlake  has  left  us  a  carefully-finished 
sacred  piece  of  "  Christ  lamenting  over  Jerusalem,"  an  "  Escape  of 
an  Italian  Family  across  the  Mountains."  and  a  dreamy-eyed,  warm- 
toned  bust-painting  of  "  Haidee,"  a  Greek  girl.  Copley's  "  Death  of 
Lord  Chatham  "  is  an  immense  historical  picture,  with  fifty-five  por- 
trait-heads. West's  sacred  style  may  be  studied  in  his  large  com- 
position of  "  Christ  healing  the  Sick."  Haydon's  "  Punch  and  Judy  " 


542 


APPENDIX. 


scarcely  illustrates  "high  art,"  but  is  an  able  and  entertaining  bit  of 
life  in  London,  crowded  with  amusing  detail.  "  Religion  attended 
by  the  Virtues,"  by  Angelica  Kaufmann,  who  is  practically  included 
with  the  British  school,  is  renowned  as  one  of  her  masterpieces,  but 
Is  more  pretentious  than  powerful  in  its  highly-strung  allegory.  Stan- 
field's  marine  and  Italian  views,  Roberts's  interiors,  and  Lance's 
fruit-pieces,  are  all  excellent  in  their  peculiar  departments.  Land- 
seer's  animals  fascinate  us  by  their  individuality  and  human  sym- 
pathies. None  can  surpass  "  The  Hunted  Stag  "  in  pathos,  while,  on 
the  other  hand,  every  glance,  every  stroke,  and  every  hair  of  "  Dig- 
nity and  Impudence,"  "Alexander  and  Diogenes,"  and  "  Low  Life 
and  High  Life,"  is  instinct  with  expressive  and  good-natured  satire. 

Another  collection  of  Landseer's  inimitable  compositions  is  on 
exhibition  at  Kensington,  where  many  other  gems  of  English  artists 
may  be  inspected.  Indeed,  all  visits  to  the  gallery  in  Trafalgar 
Square  should  be  supplemented  by  an  examination  of  the  South 
Kensington  Museum,  Hampton  Court,  and  the  royal  paintings  at 
Windsor  Castle.  The  traveler  should  also  endeavor,  if  possible,  to 
see  the  collections  of  the  Earl  of  Ellesmere,  and  of  other  noblemen, 
whose  celebrated  pictures  have  largely  added  to  the  art-treasures  of 
Great  Britain. 

THE   DRESDEN   GALLERY, 

Unexcelled  by  any  in  Europe,  combines  Northern  comfort  with  South- 
ern splendor.  It  is  the  only  Continental  gallery  properly  warmed  in 
winter,  or  well  furnished  with  convenient  seats,  so  that  mind  and 
body  unite  to  appreciate  its  treasures. 

The  Electors  and  Kings  of  Saxony  have,  indeed,  left  the  public  a 
precious  legacy  of  their  taste  and  munificence.  While  the  reputa- 
tion of  their  pictures  was  ever  sufficient  to  attract  all  travelers  to 
their  kingdom,  the  present  gallery,  inaugurated  in  1855,  has  placed 
these  noble  paintings  in  a  fitting  temple,  where  their  merits  may  be 
recognized  at  a  glance,  and  their  beauties  studied  with  never-ceasing 
delight. 

Ascending  a  broad  staircase,  and  crossing  an  outer  hall,  the  vis- 
itor finds  himself  in  an  elevated  rotunda,  hung  with  Flemish  tapes- 
tries woven  from  the  designs  of  Quintin  Matsys  and  the  cartoons  of 
Raphael.  From  this  central  point  the  gallery  stretches  right  and 


THE  DRESDEN  GALLERY.  ^ 

left ;  descending,  by  a  few  steps  on  either  hand,  to  spacious  and  airy 
saloons,  representing  on  one  side  the  Italian  schools,  terminated  by 
the  apartment  devoted  to  the  Sistine  Madonna ;  and  on  the  other  the 
Spanish,  Flemish,  and  Dutch  schools,  ending  with  the  Holbein  Ma- 
donna-Room. Many  well-lighted  cabinets,  connecting  at  intervals 
with  these  saloons,  are  filled  with  the  smaller  pictures ;  while  an  up- 
per story  of  the  building  accommodates  the  rest  of  the  collection. 

Beginning  our  approach  to  the  Sistine  Madonna,  we  pass  from 
the  rotunda  to  the  hall  of  Bolognese  Masters,  where  Annibale  Car- 
racci's  immense  pictures  of  the  "  Assumption  of  the  Virgin,"  and 
"  St.  Roch  distributing  Alms,"  are  the  first  to  be  noticed.  The 
"  Genius  of  Glory  "  is  but  a  feeble  imitation  of  Guido  Reni's  "  For- 
tuna  "  at  Rome.  Guide's  "  Ninus  and  Semiramis,"  to  the  right  of 
the  staircase,  would  be  equally  comprehensible  under  its  old  title  of 
the  "  Queen  of  Sheba  and  Solomon."  His  religious  ideas  are 
strangely  illustrated  by  another  composition  of  the  "  Risen  Saviour  " 
appearing  to  his  astonished  mother,  attended  by  the  somewhat  incon- 
gruous group  of  Adam,  Eve,  and  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  who  are 
supposed  to  be  just  delivered  from  Hades.  A  reposing  "  Venus," 
at  the  end  of  the  room,  is  in  pale,  silvery,  and  simpering  style. 
Guercino's  "  Lot  and  his  Daughters  "  is  boldly  colored,  strongly  exe- 
cuted, and  very  disagreeable.  Larger  classical  subjects,  such  as 
"Dorinda  wounded  in  the  Arms  of  Linco,"  or  "Venus  beholding 
the  Corpse  of  Adonis,"  ought  to  be  interesting,  but  fail  to  stir  a  pro- 
found sympathy.  Caravaggio's  "  Young  Lasquenet  "  is  a  dark,  real- 
istic, and  vivid  game  at  cards,  less  vulgar  than  usual,  and  very  in- 
tense in  expression.  Lanfranco's  "St.  Peter  repenting"  is  one  of 
the  best  easel-pieces  of  a  mediocre  artist;  while  Franceschini's 
"  Magdalene,"  surrounded  by  women  who  console  her,  is  more  hys- 
terical than  penitential. 

The  Venetian  pictures  in  the  next  apartment  are  exceedingly 
brilliant  and  entertaining.  Titian's  "  Holy  Virgin  with  Saints  "  dis- 
plays, on  a  large  scale,  his  ample  and  benignant  ideal  of  womanhood, 
especially  in  the  fair  young  female  in  the  foreground,  robed  in  white, 
conventionally  known  as  the  Magdalene.  In  a  similar  composition, 
a  noble  family,  richly  attired,  whom  some  btlieve  to  be  Lucretia 
Borgia,  the  Duke  of  Ferrara,  and  their  son,  are  devoutly  addressing 
their  prayers  to  the  Virgin.  Several  splendid  nearly  full-length  por- 
traits are  in  his  happiest  manner,  among  them  "  Aretino,"  with  palm 


544 


APPENDIX. 


in  hand;  a  stately  widowed  "Queen  of  Cyprus,"  clao1  in  black;  a 
gracious,  bright-haired  beauty,  with  plumy  fan,  said  to  have  been 
once  called  his  mistress  ;  and  his  plump,  pretty  daughter  "  Lavinia," 
passed  beyond  her  youthful  charms  into  matronly  stoutness.  Four 
or  five  nude  figures  of  "  Venus  "  are  among  the  Venetian  peculiari- 
ties of  the  collection.  The  most  beautiful  of  these  reclines  upon  a 
couch,  her  neck  twined  with  pearls,  her  golden  head  crowned  by 
Cupid  and  relieved  against  a  red  curtain,  and  a  lover  playing  the 
lute  beside  her.  Pordenone,  Titian's  rival  in  portraiture,  has  a  mag- 
nificent female  half-figure,  draped  in  mourning,  wrongfully  styled 
"  Queen  of  Cyprus  ;  "  Palma  Vecchio,  a  couple  of  "  Holy  Conversa- 
tions ;"  Titian's  brother  Francesco,  a  small  "  Ecce  Homo;"  and 
Paul  Veronese,  a  number  of  specimens,  of  which  the  "  Adoration  of 
the  Magi  "  is  most  gorgeous  and  complete.  The  King  Balthasar  is 
markedly  negro,  but  Caspar  is  a  fine  old  Venetian  noble,  with  pages 
to  hold  his  train,  and  plenty  of  dogs  and  horses.  A  "  Marriage  at 
Cana  "  is  comparatively  small,  and  differently  treated  from  the  colos- 
sal "  Feast  "  in  the  Louvre.  A  grand  votive  Madonna  group  portrays 
the  Concina  family,  presented  by  Faith,  Hope,  and  Charity,  to  the 
Virgin  and  Child.  Giorgione's  "  Meeting  of  Jacob  and  Rachel  "  is 
a  famous  pastoral  scene,  with  charmingly-managed  light  and  shade, 
and  a  rotund  Rachel  embraced  by  a  gallant  mediaeval  shepherd,  rich 
in  gamboling  lambs  and  the  friskiest  of  goats. 

The  following  hall  contains  a  few  more  Venetian  paintings,  in- 
cluding Veronese's  and  Bonifazio's  "Finding  of  Moses;"  Veronese's 
"  Healing  of  the  Centurion's  Servant,"  deep  in  color  and  animated  in 
action,  but  weak  and  poor  in  its  figure  of  Christ ;  Cima's  majestic, 
full-length  "  Saviour  in  Benediction,"  holding  a  book — very  generally 
but  falsely  attributed  to  Gian  Bellini ;  Moretto's  meek  and  lovely 
"  Madonna,"  with  folded  hands  and  flowing  robes  of  gray ;  and 
Paris  Bordone's  gay  "Diana,"  the  goddess  of  the  chase.  Other 
meritorious  pictures,  such  as  Francia's  "  Baptism  of  Christ ;  "  Andrea 
del  Sarto's  "  Sacrifice  of  Abraham ;  "  Garofalo's  touching  "  Adoration 
of  the  Child;"  Calvaert's  copy  of  Raphael's  "St.  Cecilia;"  and 
Bagnacavallo's  masterly  composition  of  a  "  Glorified  Virgin  with 
Saints,"  are  well  worth  the  admiration  of  the  spectator,  but  are  often 
slighted  for  the  great  attraction  of  the  room — the  altar-pieces  of  Cor- 
regio  on  the  right-hand  wall.  Here  are  the  three  Madonnas  of  St. 
George,  St.  Sebastian,  and  St.  Francis  ;  so  named  from  the  adoring 


THE  DRESDEN  GALLERY. 

545 

saints  upon  the  canvases.  In  each  the  enthroned  Virgin  and  Child 
look  down  upon  their  worshipers  with  love  and  tenderness.  The  Ma- 
donna of  St.  George  turns  her  head  with  a  little  exaggerated  smile 
and  sweetness ;  but  the  whole  arrangement  of  the  piece,  with  the 
warrior-saint  below,  and  the  angelic  children  who  hold  his  armor,  is 
a  man-el  of  grace  and  brilliancy.  Here,  too,  is  the  celebrated  "  Na- 
tivity," or  "  Santa  Notte,"  of  Correggio,  so  wonderful  in  conception 
and  almost  miraculous  in  execution.  "  It  is  night.  We  have  before 
us  the  stable  in  which  God  was  made  man.  The  scene  is  illumined 
by  the  supernatural  radiance  beaming  from  the  body  of  the  infant 
Jesus,  reclining  on  the  straw.  This  light  glorifies  the  face  of  the 
Virgin  Mother,  who  leans  above  her  Child,  and  dazzles  the  shepherds 
who  hasten  hither  at  sound  of  the  glad  tidings.  It  extends  to  Joseph 
leading  the  ass,  who  would  warm  with  his  breath  the  suffering  Saviour 
now  subjected  to  all  the  needs  of  humanity,  and  to  the  band  of 
angels  singing  their  gloria  in  the  open  heavens  above."  The  main 
foreground  of  the  picture  is  in  sombre,  shadowy  brown  ;  the  aerial 
distance  in  deep  night-blue. 

Still  gradually  nearing  Raphael's  chef-d'ctuvre,  we  are  led  to  a 
small  collection  of  pictures,  mostly  of  the  Roman  school.  On  the  left 
of  the  door  is  a  large  and  ancient  representation  of  the  "Annunciation," 
with  an  immense  snail  one  of  the  principal  objects  in  the  foreground. 
On  the  other  side  hang  good  copies  of  two  or  three  of  Raphael's 
Madonnas,  especially  the  "  Seggiola  ;  "  a  "  Daughter  of  Herodias," 
of  the  school  of  Leonardo,  probably  by  Marco  d'Oggione,  copyist 
of  the  "  Last  Supper  ; "  another  "  HeVodiade  "  by  Carlo  Dolce,  with 
face  averted  from  the  sight  of  the  bloody  charger ;  and  a  charming 
"  St.  Ceciiia,"  also  by  Carlo  Dolce,  whose  drooping  head  and  soft, 
rapt  expression,  as  she  plays  upon  her  traditional  organ,  is  sweet  with- 
out vacancy,  and  pensive  without  affectation.  Just  opposite  we  discover 
one  of  Giulio  Romano's  best  works,  the  "  Madonna  della  Catena,"  or 
"  Madonna  of  the  Pitcher,"  where  the  Christ  child  stands  in  a  basin, 
with  the  young  St.  John  pouring  over  him  the  water  symbolical  of 
his  future  baptism.  Next  this  Holy  Family  are  "  Madonnas  "  by 
Sassoferrato  and  Carlo  Maratta,  the  latter  very  suggestive  of  Correg- 
gio's  Virgin  in  the  "  Santa  Notte  ;"  and  a  Virgin  and  Child,  by  Par- 
magiano,  called  the  "  Madonna  della  Rosa,"  exhibiting  the  artist's 
ruling  passion  for  length  of  limbs  and  fingers.  There  is  a  legend 
that  this  bright  and  smiling  pair  was  once  a  "  Venus  and  Cupid," 


546 


APPENDIX. 


metamorphosed  into  a  "  Madonna  "  to  satisfy  the  religious  instincts 
of  Pope  Clement  VII. 

Stepping  into  an  adjoining  cabinet  we  find  some  Venetian  paint- 
ings of  varying  size,  from  Tintoretto's  extensive  canvases  to  Dome- 
nico  Feti's  miniature  rendering  of  the  parables.  It  is  singular  that 
Tintoretto's  fine  picture,  "  Mary  as  Queen  of  Heaven,  adored  by 
SS.  Barbara  and  Catharine,  two  mitred  Bishops,  and  an  Acolyte," 
should  be  quietly  hidden  in  this  secluded  spot.  It  has  for  companion 
a  "  Presentation  in  the  Temple,"  by  Paul  Veronese,  gay  as  ever  with 
sportive  children  and  amiable  dogs.  A  lovely  "  Magdalene,"  by 
Battoni,  belongs  to  this  part  of  the  gallery,  but  is  sometimes  removed 
to  other  saloons  for  copying.  She  lies  upon  the  ground,  a  large,  full- 
length  figure,  in  careless  robes  of  blue,  her  long  hair  flowing  over 
her  shoulders,  and  her  eyelids  red  with  weeping. 

But  at  last  the  Sanctum  Sanctorum  of  the  Madonna  of  San  Sisto 
is  reached,  and  we  pass  into  the  presence  of  the  genius  of  the  place. 
At  the  end  of  a  long,  narrow  room,  lighted  at  the  side,  with  elabo- 
rately frescoed  ceiling  and  dark  wall-hangings,  is  erected  a  kind  of 
altar,  inscribed  with  the  name  of  Raphael,  the  date,  and  the  place  for 
which  the  picture  was  originally  painted.  Above  this  altar  is  placed 
the  matchless  composition,  in  a  richly-gilded  inlaid  frame,  pointed  at 
top.  No  other  work  of  art  is  near  it.  Nothing  draws  the  eye  from 
the  contemplation  of  its  beauty;  and  no  sound  breaks  the  sacred 
quiet.  People  take  off  their  hats  and  speak  in  whispers,  as  in  a 
church.  One  sees  only  the  light  of  heaven  streaming  in  at  the  win- 
dow, and  the  light  of  heaven  reflected  from  the  superhuman  face  of 
the  mother  and  the  divine  countenance  of  the  child.  They  appear  in 
glory  ;  a  misty  halo  of  cherub  heads  melting  into  space  behind  them  ; 
venerable  St.  Sixtus  and  mild  St.  Barbara  in  ecstatic  worship  below ; 
and  youthful  angels  at  the  base,  gazing  upward  in  adoration.  A 
strange  sense  of  indefinable  distance  creeps  over  us.  The  figures  do 
not  look  at  the  spectator :  they  gaze  beyond  us  into  the  very  depths 
of  eternity.  This  profound  intensity  of  expression  seems  to  lie  pecul- 
iarly in  the  deep  brown  eyes  of  the  Virgin,  and  in  the  mouth  of  the 
child.  No  copy  can  convey  it.  Form,  color,  and  sweetness,  may  be 
given  ;  but  the  divine  element  lingers  round  the  creation  of  Raphael's 
own  hand.  It  is  satisfactory  to  know  that  this  gem  is  fully  appre- 
ciated. A  special  guardian  has  charge  of  it,  and  watches  it  with 
jealous  and  anxious  care.  The  temperature  of  the  apartment  is  not 


THE  DRESDEN  GALLERY.  S4? 

allowed  to  vary.  No  profane  dust  or  too  glaring  light  is  ever  allowed 
to  fall  upon  the  canvas.  Let  us  hope  that  the  favored  official  whose 
daily  task  is  so  aesthetic  will  not  meet  the  fate  of  the  German  Muller 
who  brooded  over  this  celestial  loveliness  till  he  lost  his  life  with  his 
reason,  and  died  a  sacrifice  to  his  admirable  engraving  of  Raphael's 
work. 

If  the  traveler  can  tear  himself  away  from  the  Sistine  Madonna, 
and  feels  that  the  rest  of  the  gallery  must  be  "  done,"  let  him  return 
to  the  central  rotunda  and  descend  its  opposite  side  to  the  saloon 
now  occupied  by  Neapolitan  and  Spanish  painters.  They  will  seem 
tame  at  first,  after  Italian  masterpieces ;  but  he  will  be  interested  in 
Murillo's  "Virgin  and  Child,"  dark-haired,  tranquil-eyed,  and  of 
peasant-like  simplicity.  This  is  the  only  specimen  by  Murillo,  except 
a  standing  "  St.  Rodrigue,"  wearing  round  his  neck  an  embroidered 
chasuble  copied  by  the  artist  from  the  priestly  vestments  of  the 
cathedral  of  Seville.  A  very  ecstatic  "  St.  Celestin  refusing  the 
Papal  Tiara,"  byZurbaran;  a  fine,  dignified  "St.  Paul,"  by  Alonso 
Cano ;  a  "  St.  Basco  of  Portugal,"  by  Valdes  Leal ;  an  "  Ecce  Homo  " 
ascribed  to  Morales ;  and  two  or  three  heads  ascribed  to  Velasquez, 
are  the  most  noteworthy  Spanish  pictures.  We  recognize,  in  this 
hall,  Ribera's  well-known  "St.  Mary  of  Egypt,"  with  luxuriant, 
auburn  hair,  kneeling  on  a  pavement,  before  an  open  tomb ;  an  angel 
in  the  background  holding  her  winding-sheet.  This  is  one  of  Ribera's 
most  attractive  works ;  but,  like  all  his  other  figures,  it  is  marked  by 
a  rude  splashiness  of  execution,  and  by  undertones  of  red  which  have 
struck  through  the  overlying  flesh-tints.  Ribera  has  also  a  "  Mar- 
tyrdom of  St.  Lawrence,"  a  ruffian-like  "  St.  Andrew,"  and  similar 
sacred  subjects.  The  "  Head  of  Diogenes,"  in  a  neighboring  hall, 
thought  to  be  his  own  portrait,  resembles  a  melancholy  demon.  Luca 
Giordano  gives  us  "  Hercules  and  Omphales,"  "  Perseus  with  the 
Head  of  Medusa,"  and  other  rapid  classical  and  religious  efforts, 
which,  combined  with  Vaccaro's  composition  of  the  "  Risen  Christ, 
the  Virgin,  St.  John  Baptist,  and  the  Patriarchs,"  quite  satisfy  our 
desire  to  acquaint  ourselves  with  Neapolitan  art. 

Four  saloons  adjacent— two  large  and  two  small— are  rich  in 
Dutch  and  Flemish  paintings.  Rubens's  genius,  however,  is  but 
inadequately  realized.  His  principal  sacred  examples  are  a  "St. 
Jerome  in  Prayer ; "  and  a  rosy  and  buxom  "  Daughter  of  Herodias," 
accompanied  by  a  young  girl  of  thirteen  or  fourteen.  Just  behind  her 


548 


APPENDIX. 


a  man  leans  forward,  and,  scissors  in  hand,  seizes  a  lock  of  hair  from 
the  Baptist's  head.  His  mythological  pictures  are  more  numerous. 
"  Neptune  stilling  the  Waves,"  a  "  Drunken  Hercules,"  a  "  Satyr 
pressing  out  the  Juice  of  the  Grape,"  and  "  Diana  returning  from  the 
Chase,"  should  be  mentioned  ;  but  all  yield  the  palm  in  fineness  of 
finish  to  "  The  Garden  of  Love  "  and  "Judgment  of  Paris."  Some 
portraits,  too,  are  very  graphic  and  pleasing,  particularly  those  of  his 
two  sons  and  his  blond-haired  second  wife.  Vandyck  is  represented 
by  several  of  his  most  excellent  portraits.  Charles  I.,  his  Oueen, 
Henrietta  Maria,  and  their  quaint  little  children,  are  faithfully  ren- 
dered ;  as  are  also  the  artist,  Martin  Ryckaert ;  the  brother  of  Rubens ; 
a  man  in  armor ;  and  the  Scotch  Methusaleh,  Thomas  Parr,  whom 
Vandyck  has  immortalized  at  the  age  of  one  hundred  and  fifty-one 
years.  In  religious  subjects  he  has  not  been  quite  so  happy.  A  "  St. 
Jerome,"  hung  beside  the  Jerome  of  Rubens;  and  a  "Madonna," 
with  pearl  ear-rings,  are  the  best  he  offers  us.  Jordaens's  highly- 
colored  sacred  scenes  are  a  second  and  weaker  edition  of  his  master. 
Sneyders's  "Hunts"  and  "Dead  Game"  are  painted  with  his  cus- 
tomary fidelity.  In  one  of  these  compositions  Rubens  and  his  wife 
appear  as  cooks.  Another,  called  the  "  Terrestrial  Paradise,"  and 
crowded  with  all  sorts  of  tame  and  savage  animals,  is  exceedingly 
curious. 

Rembrandt's  style  is  illustrated  by  about  twenty  productions, 
among  which  the  "  Sacrifice  of  Manoah  ; "  "  Ganymede  carried  off  by 
the  Eagle  ;  "  and  "Samson  at  a  Feast  of  the  Philistines,"  often  mis- 
named the  "  Banquet  of  Ahasuerus,"  are  largest  and  most  important. 
But  the  spectator  is  apt  to  turn  with  more  satisfaction  to  such  vivid 
portraits  as  those  of  a  gray-bearded  old  man  ;  an  old  woman,  weigh- 
ing gold  ;  his  young  and  gayly-dressed  wife,  Saskia,  with  a  pink  in 
her  hand  ;  or  the  artist  himself,  drinking  champagne,  with  his  wife  on 
his  knee.  Rembrandt's  pupils  and  followers  have  here  left  a  few 
very  creditable  paintings.  Konincx's  turbaned  "  Old  Man "  and 
"  Reading  Hermit  "  are  particularly  good ;  so  is  Ferdinand  Bol's 
"  Jacob  presented  to  Pharaoh."  Honthorst's  "  Dentist,"  drawing  a 
tooth  by  candle-light,  makes  us  shudder  with  sympathy  for  his  unfor- 
tunate victim.  Realistic  and  wonderful  portraits,  by  Mierevelt  and 
Van  der  Heist,  bring  the  faces  and  figures  of  two  centuries  ago  like 
familiar  acquaintances  before  our  eyes.  Some  likenesses  are  so 
startling  that  we  can  scarcely  refrain  from  asking  their  history.  The 


THE  DRESDEN  GALLERY.  ^ 

microscopically-accurate  portraits  by  Balthasar  Denner,  in  this  gal- 
lery, should  also  be  carefully  noticed,  as  they  are  rare  and  valuable. 

The  Holbein  Madonna-Room  resembles  in  size  the  Saloon  of  the 
Sistine  Virgin,  but  is  differently  arranged.  This  "  Meyer  Madonna  " 
is  not  nearly  so  large  as  Raphael's  great  picture,  and  is  not  left  in 
quite  solitary  splendor.  On  the  right  wall  we  see  a  "  Christ  bearing 
the  Cross,"  said  to  be  the  last  work  of  Albrecht  Diirer;  a  rainbow- 
spanned  "  Crucifixion,"  by  Roger  van  der  Weyden ;  and  a  couple  of 
less  significant  specimens  from  the  hand  of  Holbein.  The  end  of  the 
apartment  is  ornamented  by  a  carved  and  gilded  screen,  in  the  centre 
of  which  hangs  the  Madonna;  with  Holbein's  famous  portrait  of 
Morett,  the  goldsmith  (once  thought  to  be  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci), 
over  an  exquisitely  fine  little  "  Virgin  and  Child,"  by  Van  Eyck,  on 
one  side,  and  a  German  portrait  of  a  strong-faced  female,  together 
with  a  small  "  Crucifixion,"  by  Albrecht  Diirer,  on  the  other.  The 
"  Madonna "  itself  is  superbly  executed.  She  stands  before  us  in 
crowned  meekness,  robed  in  very  dark  green,  with  red  girdle.  The 
infant  Jesus  in  her  arms  is  stretching  out  his  hand.  At  her  feet 
kneel  the  Meyer  family,  consisting  of  an  extremely  Dutch  burgo- 
master, in  black,  fur-lined  gown,  with  wig  black  as  the  plumage  of 
the  raven,  and  a  bevy  of  females  with  nun-like  coiffures,  one  of  whom, 
clad  in  white,  tells  the  beads  of  her  red  rosary.  The  recovered  child, 
for  whom  the  votive  offering  was  made,  appears  nude  in  the  fore- 
ground. The  whole  composition,  though  curiously  realistic,  is  very 
earnest  and  devout;  and  the  gentle  Virgin  seems  intent  to  bless. 
Admiring  groups  are  usually  seated  round  the  room,  from  whom  one 
hears  such  exclamations  as  "  Wunderschon  I "  "  Allerliebst,"  or 
"  Ach,  Himmel!  wte  geistreich  !  "  For,  though  the  Virgin  of  San 
Sisto  may  be  the  pride  of  the  German  nation,  the  Holbein  Madonna 
is  its  peculiar  pet. 

In  alluding  to  the  contents  of  the  twenty-one  cabinets  which  are 
ranged  along  the  outer  sides  of  the  saloons,  it  is  of  course  impossi- 
ble to  particularize  each  separate  picture.  We  can  only  briefly  men- 
tion the  most  celebrated.  The  first  five  of  these  cabinets  are  set 
apart  for  the  Italian  schools,  beginning  with  early  masters  of  the  fif- 
teenth century.  Perugino  is  represented  by  a  doubtful  fragment 
Francia  by  a  "  Virgin  and  Child,"  and  a  very  beautiful  "Adoration 
of  the  Magi,"  small  in  size,  but  lovely  and  perfect  in  detail.  In  an 
adjacent  rendering  of  this  subject  the  Madonna  sits  under  a  canopy- 


55° 


APPENDIX. 


like  shed,  with  a  star  in  the  apex,  receiving  the  homage  of  the  kings, 
who  have  traveled  upon  camels  and  elephants  in  true  Eastern  style. 
A  "  Madonna  and  Child  "  on  the  opposite  wall  is  now  attributed  to 
Leonardo  da  Vinci,  but  was  purchased  as  the  work  of  Lorenzo  di 
Credi.  A  singular  little  half-length  "  portrait,"  by  Pinturrichio,  is 
sometimes  called  the  likeness  of  Raphael  in  his  youth.  He  has  a 
pink  dress,  blue  cap,  and  long  brown  hair  of  most  uncompromising 
straightness.  Another  odd  composition,  by  Francia  Bigio,  shows  us 
"  Bathsheba  "  publicly  bathing  in  full  view  of  King  David  and  his 
courtiers ;  while  in  the  background  is  delineated  the  whole  history  of 
Uriah.  Lodovico  Carracci's  small  "  Repose  in  Egypt "  is  a  charming 
group,  in  the  midst  of  a  very  pretty  landscape.  The  Holy  Child  is 
sleeping ;  an  angel  is  earnestly  conversing  with  Joseph  ;  but  the 
mother,  looking  up  to  heaven,  beholds  the  cross  and  the  sad  instru- 
ments of  the  Passion.  Albani  gives  us  the  same  subject,  quite  as 
gracefully  but  not  so  poetically. 

Correggio's  exquisite  "  Reading  Magdalene  "  is  the  special  gem 
of  the  second  cabinet.  She  lies  leaning  on  her  elbow,  her  blue  dra- 
pery .contrasting  with  the  deep  brown  and  green  background.  Her 
eyes  are  bent  upon  her  book,  and  her  pale  golden  hair  ripples  over 
bust  and  shoulder.  This  little  picture,  painted  on  copper,  was  once 
inclosed  in  a  heavy  frame  of  silver  gilt,  set  with  pearls  and  turquoises  ; 
but  was  stolen  in  1788.  The  offer  of  a  large  reward  eventually  re- 
covered the  painting,  minus  the  jewels.  Very  near  it  hangs  Correg- 
gio's portrait  of  his  "  Physician,"  a  calm,  dignified  likeness.  Think 
of  the  favored  country  towns  which  possessed  such  physicians  and 
such  artists  ! 

The  Bolognese  Cabinet  which  follows  displays  Guide's  well- 
known  "  Ecce  Homo,"  and  "  Christ  crowned  with  Thorns  ;  "  also  a 
riotous  boy  "  Bacchus,"  drinking  wine  from  a  bottle.  Here,  too,  are 
several  of  Albani's  classical  works,  thronged  with  the  customary  rosy- 
Cupids  ;  Annibale  Carracci's  fine  "Head  of  Christ ;"  and  Cignani's 
"  Joseph  flying  from  Potiphar's  Wife,"  in  which  Joseph's  terror  and 
dismay  are  almost  ludicrously  rendered.  The  succeeding  room 
boasts,  among  other  Venetian  beauties,  of  the  three  fair  "  Daughters 
of  Palma  Vecchio  ; "  and  of  Titian's  "  Christo  della  Moneta,"  or 
Christ  replying  to  the  Pharisees  who  question  him  about  the  tribute- 
money.  The  face  of  the  cunning,  malignant  Pharisee  who  repre- 
sents all  his  sect  is  marvelously  expressive,  while  the  most  distin- 
guished critics  have  vied  in  their  praises  of  the  head  of  our  Lord. 


THE  DRESDEN  GALLERY. 

So1 

Only  a  few  French  landscapes  are  owned  by  the  gallery.  Best 
of  these  are  two  by  Claude  Lorraine,  one  of  which  gives  us  the 
"  Flight  of  the  Holy  Family  "  in  a  very  subordinate  group  ;  the  other 
depicts  the  "  Coast  of  Sicily."  Plenty  of  similar  German,  Dutch. 
and  Flemish  compositions  are  contained  in  the  remaining  cabinets. 
Wouverman's  rustic  and  hunting  scenes,  each  with  the  inevitable 
white  horse,  are  particularly  abundant.  The  elder  Teniers,  Nicholas 
Berghem,  and  Adrian  Van  de  Velde,  have  also  left  characteristic 
specimens.  Paul  Potter  has  but  two  or  three  pastorals.  Jan  Both's 
deep  golden  sunlight  attests  his  love  of  Italian  atmosphere;  and 
Ruysdael's  matchless  "  Monastery,"  ••  Chase,"  and  "Jewish  Ceme- 
tery "  bring  us  to  the  climax  of  Northern  landscape  art. 

Dutch  and  Flemish  genre  paintings  likewise  exist  in  great  perfec- 
tion. These  are  frequently  preserved  under  glass.  The  younger 
Teniers  has  many  "  Rural  Fetes,"  "  Peasants,"  "  Interiors,"  "  Incan- 
tation Scenes,"  and  "  Temptation  of  St.  Anthony."  Among  the 
works  of  Gerard  Dow  we  especially  notice  the  "  Hermit  kneeling 
before  an  Open  Bible;"  a  "Young  Girl  at  a  Window,"  holding  a 
candle,  and  gathering  a  bunch  of  grapes  ;  a  "  Schoolmaster  "  mend- 
ing a  pen  ;  an  "  Old  Woman  "  looking  for  the  end  of  her  thread  ; 
and  the  artist's  own  portraits,  drawing  in  a  book,  and  playing  the 
violin.  Gerard  Terburg  appears  here  as  elsewhere  as  the  "  painter 
of  white  satin."  Jan  Steen  has  a  comical  little  domestic  piece  of  a 
mother  feeding  the  Dutches!  of  Dutch  babies  with  a  spoon.  Frans 
von  Mieris's  "  Artist's  Studio  "  and  "  Young  Girl  listening  to  an  Old 
Woman "  are  remarkably  well  done.  Metsu's  "  Poulterers  "  and 
"  Lace-Maker  "  are  his  best  pictures.  Netscher's  "  Portrait  of  Ma- 
dame de  Montespan  "  is  interesting,  and  his  ladies  at  their  "  Music 
Lesson,"  almost  as  richly  dressed  as  Terburg's  elegant  females ; 
while  Van  der  Werff's  "  Magdalene "  and  "  Abraham  sending 
away  Hagar  "  exhibit  all  his  elaborate  softness  and  minuteness  of 
finish.  "Candlelight  Scenes,"  by  Schalken ;  "Dead  Game,"  by 
Weenix  ;  "  Interiors,"  by  Neefs  and  Van  Steenwyck  ;  "  Breakfasts  " 
and  "  Bouquets,"  by  De  Heem  or  Van  Huysum  ;  and  "  Cocks  "  and 
".Chickens  "  by  Hondekoeter,  fill  up  the  spaces  between  more  pre- 
tentious paintings. 

In  the  last  cabinet  are  gathered  a  number  of  ancient  specimens, 
including  a  large  and  quaint  "  Adoration  of  the  Kings,"  by  Mabuse, 
where  the  figures  are  grouped  among  the  ruins  of  a  sumptuous  tem- 


552 


APPENDIX. 


pie ;  and  many  portraits,  ascribed  to  Holbein,  Cranach,  Memling, 
Diirer,  Pourbus,  and  others. 

The  upper  story  is  a  melange  of  all  the  schools,  generally  second 
rate  in  merit.  A  few  small  and  very  old  Byzantine  and  Italian  pict- 
ures are  here  preserved,  such  as  a  dark  and  dismal  "  Madonna  and 
Child,"  enthroned  in  a  chair,  by  Giunta  Pisano  ;  an  "  Assumption," 
and  a  "  Crucifix,"  of  the  Siennese  school ;  a  "  Miracle  of  St.  Zeno- 
bius,"  by  Botticelli ;  a  "  Pieta  "  by  Squarcione  ;  and  a  "  Presentation 
of  the  Virgin  "  by  Cima  da  Conegliano.  The  Germans  are  more 
favorably  represented.  Specimens  by  Lucas  Cranach  abound — all 
carefully  and  brilliantly  painted.  Several  are  compartments  of  an- 
tique altar-pieces.  Others,  less  grave,  are  very  curiously  conceived. 
There  is,  for  instance,  a  Dutch  "  Daughter  of  Heroclias,"  presenting 
the  head  of  St.  John  Baptist  to  her  father,  who  wears  a  plume  in 
his  cap  and  looks  like  Henry  VIII.  Then  an  "  Ill-Assorted  Union," 
in  which  a  toothless  old  woman  is  embracing  a  young  husband  ; 
"  King  Solomon  "  enticed  to  idolatry  by  a  band  of  North-German 
wives  ;  and  the  Saviour  blessing  a  company  of  innocent,  moon-faced 
German  children.  Rooms  beyond  are  supplied  with  many  land- 
scapes by  Poussin,  Poelemburg,  Swanevelt,  Saftleven,  Bril,  Berghem, 
and  Velvet  Breughel.  Genre  pieces  by  Breughel  are  more  rare  ;  but 
his  brother  Hollen  Breughel  gives  us  a  view  of  the  infernal  regions, 
and  a  "  Sodom  and  Gomorrah,"  lit  by  lurid  and  flaming  color. 

Passing  to  later  times  we  have  Angelica  Kaufmann's  "  Vestal 
Virgin,"  and  less  graceful  "  Sibyl ;  "  together  with  a  "  Magdalene," 
and  a  couple  of  other  oil-paintings  by  Raphael  Mengs.  But  Mengs's 
most  celebrated  works — his  own  portraits,  that  of  his  father,  and 
"  Cupid  sharpening  his  Arrow  " — must  be  sought  among  the  pastel 
pictures  on  the  lower  floor.  The  same  collection  of  pastels  possesses 
Liotard's  "  Chocolate-Girl,"  and  an  excellent  series  of  portraits  by 
the  charming  Venetian  lady,  Rosalba  Camera.  Near  these  we  find 
Canale's  and  Canaletto's  views  of  Venice  and  of  Dresden  ;  a  room 
entirely  devoted  to  the  productions  of  Christian  Dietrich,  once  court- 
painter  of  Augustus  III.  of  Saxony;  a  small  cabinet  of  miniatures  ; 
and  a  large  hall  of  magnificent  engravings  and  drawings. 

The  Dresden  Gallery  also  comprises  a  saloon  containing  some 
fifty  pictures  of  the  modern  German  school,  which  may  eventually 
develop  into  a  valuable  museum  of  contemporary  art. 


THE   GALLERY  OF  MUNICH. 

\  ooo 

THE   GALLERY   OF   MUNICH. 

MUNICH,  which  has  been  called  the  German  Athens,  is  the  special 
guardian  of  Northern,  as  Florence  of  Southern  art.  Though  its  gal- 
lery is  not  so  extensive  or  magnificent  as  that  of  Dresden,  it  is  a  bet- 
ter and  clearer  exponent  of  the  genius  of  the  Northern  schools  ;  while 
its  unique  assemblage  of  ancient  German  pictures  gives  us  the  very 
essence  of  early  art-culture  in  Flanders  and  in  the  provinces  of  the 
Rhine. 

Of  modern  pictures  in  Munich  we  shall  not  at  present  speak,  but 
confine  ourselves  to  the  collection  of  the  Old  Pinakothek,  which  con- 
tains about  fourteen  hundred  paintings  from  all  parts  of  Germany, 
Italy,  France,  and  Spain,  most  appropriately  lodged  in  the  splendid 
building  founded  by  Ludwig  I.,  and  finished  in  1836  under  the  title 
of  the  "Royal  Pinakothek."  The  pictures  are  arranged  in  nine 
large  saloons  and  twenty-three  cabinets,  and  the  succession  of  the 
schools  has  been  quite  rigidly  observed. 

The  order  of  time,  however,  does  not  begin  with  the  saloons,  but 
with  the  first  six  cabinets,  where  we  find  the  greatest  part  of  what  is 
styled  the  "Boisseree  Sammlung,"  a  small  gallery  of  primitive  Ger- 
man paintings  of  the  fourteenth,  fifteenth,  and  sixteenth  centuries, 
gathered  from  old  convents,  churches,  and  castles,  by  the  brothers 
Boisseree,  and  now  passed  from  their  private  ownership  into  the  prop- 
erty of  the  nation.  These  are  as  curious  and  fantastic  as  the  most 
zealous  antiquarian  could  desire.  Their  subjects  are  generally  sacred 
and  quaintly  traditional,  and  their  style  suggests  the  Byzantine  ori- 
gin of  mediaeval  art.  Like  Greco-Italian  panels,  they  are  executed 
on  wood — frequently  on  a  gilt  ground — and  exhibit  the  old  Byzan- 
tine stiffness  and  splendor,  but  with  greater  preponderance  of  blue, 
red,  or  pale-gleaming  green  color,  and  more  sweetness  and  softness 
of  expression.  The  true  German  mildness  of  countenance  replaces 
the  severe  and  repulsive  Oriental  type.  Such  as  are  ascribed  to  Meis- 
ter  Wilhelm  and  Meister  Stephan,  of  Cologne,  and  to  the  master  of  the 
"  Lyversberg  Passion,"  are  most  interesting.  Their  favorite  themes 
are  legendary  incidents  in  the  life  and  death  of  the  Virgin.  Many  are 
wings  or  centres  of  dismembered  altar-pieces.  Among  the  remains 
of  the  Netherlands  are  a  few  compositions  of  the  school  of  Van 
Eyck  ;  a  rich  "  Adoration  of  the  Kings,"  by  Van  der  Weyden ;  sev- 
eral figures  of  "  St.  Barbara ;  "  and  a  celebrated  picture  by  Memling, 


554 


APPENDIX. 


entitled  "  The  Seven  Joys  of  the  Holy  Virgin,"  which  is  in  fact  a 
number  of  miniature  scenes  from  the  life  of  Mary,  with  the  landscape 
of  Jerusalem  in  the  centre,  inclosed  in  one  frame.  Its  companion- 
piece,  "  The  Seven  Sorrows  of  the  Virgin,"  is  at  Turin.  A  portrait 
of  "  Martin  Schon  "  rather  contradicts  his  right  to  the  appellation  of 
"  Bel  Martina."  Hans  Holbein  the  Elder  and  the  Younger,  Michael 
Wohlgemuth,  and  Albrecht  Diirer,  are  best  represented  in  the  first 
saloon ;  though  in  the  cabinets  are  Diirer's  serene,  intellectual  like- 
ness of  himself,  and  his  portraits  of  his  father  and  his  teacher  Wohl- 
gemuth. 

The  divided  wings  of  a  Bavarian  altar-piece,  hanging  here  and 
there  in  the  first  saloon,  furnish  us  with  ample  specimens  of  the  dry, 
formal  manner  of  Holbein  the  Elder.  The  works  of  his  more  gifted 
son  are  not  so  authentic.  A  "Martyrdom  of  St.  Sebastian  "  is  usu- 
ally considered  one  of  his  earliest  altar-paintings,  completed  while 
still  under  his  father's  tuition.  A  large  composition  of  the  "Adul- 
teress before  Christ "  illustrates  the  method  of  Lucas  Cranach. 
Michael  Wohlgemuth's  hard,  grotesque  figures  of  the  Saviour  and 
saints  give  little  promise  of  his  great  pupil's  excellence.  A  very 
singular  panel  by  Wohlgemuth  will  be  found  in  the  fifth  cabinet,  un- 
der the  title  of  the  "  Twelve  Apostles  going  forth  to  evangelize  the 
World."  The  most  famous  examples  by  Diirer  are  the  pendants 
known  as  "  The  Four  Temperaments."  These  are  two  long,  narrow 
pictures,  the  first  portraying  "  St.  John  and  St.  Peter,"  gazing  upon 
the  same  book ;  the  second  "  St.  Paul  and  St.  Mark,"  with  the  sword 
and  the  gospel-roll.  Their  marked  and  peculiar  characteristics  caused 
them  to  be  regarded  as  types  of  temperaments. 

Later  German  and  early  Dutch  paintings  are  collected  in  the 
second  saloon,  especially  some  naive  and  stiff  compositions  by  Ge- 
rard van  Haarlem,  Engelbrechtsen,  Martin  Schafifner,  and  Mabuse. 
This  comprehensive  apartment  contains  farther  on  several  landscapes 
by  Dietrich,  and  portraits  of  Raphael  Mengs  and  Angelica  Kauf- 
mann.  The  next  hall  introduces  us  to  the  Italian  sunsets  of  Jan 
Both ;  the  genre  painters  of  Holland ;  several  fine  portraits  and 
sacred  pieces  by  Vandyck,  especially  a  "  Madonna  and  Child ; " 
three  "  Pietas,"  and  "  Susanna  at  the  Bath  ; "  Van  der  Heist's  por- 
trait of  old  "  Admiral  Van  Tromp  ;"  a  richly-dressed  "  Turk,"  with 
a  couple  of  other  heads,  by  Rembrandt,  and  effective  Old-Testament 
scenes  by  his  pupils  ;  an  "  Interior  of  a  Cottage,"  uncommonly  broad 


THE  GALLERY  OF  MUNICH.  ^ 

in  treatment,  by  Terburg ;  a  full-length  "  Magdalene  "  in  a  grotto, 
by  Van  der  Werff;  a  "Stag-Hunt,"  by  Wouverman ;  an  immense 
"  Kitchen  Interior,"  by  Sneyders ;  "  Dead  Game,"  by  Weenix ; 
"Flowers  and  Fruit,"  by  De  Heem ;  and  a  mettlesome  "Cock- 
Fight  "  by  the  poultry-painter,  Hondekoeter. 

A  whole  saloon,  with  an  adjacent  cabinet,  is  appropriated  to  the 
memory  of  Rubens,  whose  complete  nature  seems  reflected  here, 
from  low,  coarse  sensuality,  through  all  the  magnificence  and  luxuri- 
ance of  color,  up  to  lofty  poetry  and  a  boundless  wealth  of  imagery. 
His  "  Drunken  Silenus  "  and  bloody  "  Massacre  of  the  Innocents  " 
are  gross '  and  glaring ;  while  his  "  Fall  of  the  Condemned  "  and 
"  Rebel  Angels  "  are  but  a  thronging  mass  of  nudities  plunging  furi- 
ously into  a  terrible  whirlpool  of  destruction,  His  mythological 
scenes,  on  the  other  hand,  are  less  fiery  and  unrestrained  than  might 
have  been  expected.  "  Castor  and  Pollux  carrying  off  the  Daughters 
of  Leucippas  "  is  especially  full  of  bold  beauty  and  wild  graceful- 
ness ;  and  his  "  Procession  of  Children  bearing  Fruit-Garlands  "  is 
a  perfect  festival  of  lovely  and  innocent  gayety.  In  the  centre  of  the 
room  is  placed  his  "  Last  Judgment,"  heaving  with  life,  brilliancy, 
majesty,  and  terror,  but  devoid  of  the  powerful  solemnity  of  Michael 
Angelo's  genius.  Yet  he  has  followed  the  ancient  type  of  the  Judge 
in  dazzling  glory,  the  saved,  the  lost,  the  open  hell  and  open  heaven. 
Viardot  remarks  in  his  study  of  this  strange  picture  :  "  In  the  group 
of  the  redeemed  I  recognized  with  emotion  a  poor  negro,  who 
seemed  as  much  surprised  as  delighted  to  find  justice  at  last,  and  to 
go  to  eternal  happiness  with  his  white  brothers."  Selecting  from  a 
number  of  other  sacred  pieces,  let  us  notice  a  "  Crucified  Christ ; " 
a  "  Virgin  and  Child,"  encircled  by  flower-wreaths  and  angels;  the 
"  Martyrdom  of  St.  Lawrence,"  on  a  colossal  gridiron  ;  "  Susanna 
surprised  at  the  Bath,"  in  a  scene  all  flooded  with  sunset  light ;  and 
a  "  Capture  of  Samson,"  where  Delilah,  a  blonde,  bold  siren  of  the 
Philistines,  laughs  behind  her  floating  golden  hair,  and  ironically 
enjoys  the  discomfiture  of  the  hero. 

The  portraits  by  Rubens  are  equally  renowned.  He  delighted  to 
immortalize  his  domestic  felicity  by  representing  himself  with  both 
his  wives.  In  one  composition  he  is  happily  seated  in  a  bower  of 
honeysuckles  with  Elizabeth  Brandt ;  in  another  he  is  taking  a  gar- 
den-walk with  his  young  bride,  Helena  Fourment.  Pictures  of  the 
beautiful  Helena  alone,  or  holding  her  little  son,  also  hang  upon  the 


556 


APPENDIX. 


walls.  In  the  finest  of  these  she  is  richly  dressed  in  black  velvet, 
pearls  and  glittering  jewels  on  her  neck  and  bosom,  and  wears  a 
shady  hat  with  wavy  white  feather.  A  few  good  landscapes,  the 
most  able  of  which  is  the  "  Hay-Harvest,"  continue  to  illustrate  the 
versatility  of  Rubens's  style.  His  principal  works  in  the  neighboring 
cabinet  are  the  large  and  animated  "  Battle  of  the  Amazons,"  and 
the  sketches  for  the  historical  and  allegorical  series  of  the  life  and 
fortunes  of  Queen  Marie  de  Medici,  completed  in  gigantic  propor- 
tions in  the  Louvre. 

Portraits  by  Vandyck  and  Rembrandt  are  among  the  attractions 
of  the  adjoining  saloon  and  cabinet.  Foremost  may  be  reckoned 
Vandyck's  vivid  and  characteristic  likeness  of  a  "  Mayor  of  Antwerp 
and  his  Wife ;  "  his  own  youthful  figure,  and  that  of  his  noble  bride 
"  Marie  Ruthven  ;  "  sketches  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  King  of  Sweden  ; 
of  General  Tilly;  and  of  Wallenstein.  These  and  all  others  are  in 
Vandyck's  delicate  and  refined  manner,  elegant  without  affectation, 
dignified,  and  full  of  soul.  A  pensive  "  Madonna,"  holding  the  sleep- 
ing Babe,  and  a  "Dead  Christ,"  hanging  in  profound  darkness  upon 
the  cross,  are  his  most  effective  religious  pieces.  Rembrandt's 
piercing,  strongly-shadowed  portraits  are  comparatively  forgotten  in 
the  fascination  of  his  singularly-treated  sacred  scenes  in  the  eleventh 
cabinet.  Here  we  may  examine  his  famous  "  Descent  from  the 
Cross,"  conventional  enough  in  arrangement,  rude  and  uncouth  in  its 
clumsy  peasant-figures,  but  surpassingly  wonderful  in  the  grandeur  of 
its  gloom  and  the  dazzling  intensity  of  its  light.  One  shaft  of  solemn, 
blinding  radiance  falls  from  heaven,  says  Charles  Blanc,  "  like  the 
glance  of  God  upon  the  Divine  Victim."  Indeed,  the  whole  series  of 
pictures  upon  the  life  of  Christ,  of  which  this  forms  a  part,  is  poeti- 
cally remarkable.  All  are  illumined  by  striking  effects  of  supernatural 
or  artificial  light.  A  panel  of  "  Christ  as  a  Boy  teaching  in  the  Tem- 
ple "  is  also  peculiarly  interesting  from  its  deep  yet  transparent 
shadow,  and  picturesque  grouping. 

Returning  to  the  fifth  saloon,  we  may  prolong  our  study  of 
Northern  masters.  The  night  light,  so  familiar  to  Rembrandt,  is 
liberally  used  by  Schalken  and  Honthorst.  Schalken  has  left  us  a 
"  Penitent  Magdalene  "  sitting  in  her  cave  by  the  glow  of  a  burning 
lamp ;  and  a  still  better  cabinet-picture  of  the  "  Wise  and  Foolish 
Virgins,"  lit  by  fantastic  gleams  of  moonlight  and  lamp-light.  Hon- 
thorst's  "  St.  Peter  delivered  from  Prison  "  is  a  nocturnal  Dutch  ver- 


THE  GALLERY  OF  MUNICH.  5-7 

sion  of  Raphael's  conception  of  the  same  subject.  Two  remaining 
paintings  by  Honthorst,  both  well  executed,  may  be  mentioned  in  this 
connection — "Cimon  in  Prison  nourished  by  his  Daughter,"  some- 
times called  "  Roman  Charity,"  and  the  "  Prodigal  Son  feasting  with 
Wanton  Women."  An  "  Italian  Fair,"  by  Teniers,  is  one  of  his 
largest  and  best  composed  pieces;  and  the  Munich  landscapes  of 
Ruysdael,  though  not  equal  to  those  in  the  Dresden  Gallery,  are  still 
very  celebrated;  particularly  "The  Cascade,"  which  leaps  and 
sparkles  like  living  water  across  the  canvas. 

Time  would  fail  to  enumerate  all  the  meritorious  works  of  other 
Flemish  and  Dutch  artists  contained  in  the  middle  cabinets.  The 
talents  of  Teniers  are  plentifully  exemplified  by  many  genre  scenes 
of  peasants,  card-players,  guard-rooms,  and  festivals.  A  "  Feast 
of  Masked  Monkeys  "  and  a  "  Concert  of  Cats  and  Monkeys  "  are 
among  the  most  grotesque.  The  Breughel  family  have  several  simi- 
lar compositions.  Otto  van  Veen,  the  master  of  Rubens,  has  com- 
memorated his  faith  in  six  elaborate  allegorical  pieces,  symbolizing 
the  triumph  of  the  Catholic  Church. 

Holland's  genre  painters  of  course  abound.  Notice  amid  their 
ranks  Gerard  Dow's  "  Old  Woman ; "  his  "  Lady  at  her  Toilet,'" 
robed  in  yellow  satin ;  the  "  Quacksalver ;  "  the  "  Pastry-Cook  ;"  his 
own  portrait ;  and  his  favorite  subject,  a  "  Praying  Hermit  r "  Ter- 
burg's  "Trumpeter;"  "Netscher's  "Bathsheba  at  the  Bath  ;"  and 
Frans  von  Mieris's  "  Lady  fainting,"  and  "  Lady  with  a  Parrot." 
Mieris  appears  to  have  had  a  passion  for  his  own  portrait,  for  he  has 
represented  himself  several  times,  once  in  a  red  cap,  once  in  a  break- 
fast scene,  where  he  serves  a  lady  with  oysters,  and  again  in  a  tavern, 
where  he  outrages  the  neat  landlady  by  laying  his  boot  upoit  the 
table.  Sixteen  equestrian  or  battle  scenes,  by  Wouverman,  are  of 
varying  degrees  of  merit.  Van  der  Werff  has  an  entire  cabinet  full 
of  graceful,  softly-polished,  but  expressionless  sacred  and  classical 
pieces.  Quitting  these  for  other  styles  of  subject,  the  traveler  should 
examine  a  marvelously  finished  "Public  Square,"  by  Van  der.  Hey- 
den  ;  the  "  Night  Interior  "  of  Peter  Neefs ;  the  "  Dutch  Cabin.'*  of 
De  Hooghe ;  the  "  Flower- Vases  "  of  De  Heem  ;  and  the  lovely 
"  Baskets  "  and  "  Bouquets  "  of  Van  Huysum  and  Rachel  Ruysch. 

Though  we  have  specially  considered  the  pictures  of  the  German 
and  Dutch  schools  at  Munich,  it  being  not  so  much  a  cosmopolitan 
as  a  representative  German  gallery,  its  treasures  are  by  no  means 


558 


APPENDIX. 


thus  exhausted.  A  few  excellent  Spanish  and  French  paintings  are 
in  the  sixth  saloon,  particularly  Murillo's  famous  "  Beggar-Boys " 
and  "  St.  Francis  healing  a  Paralytic ;  "  Zurbaran's  "  Virgin  and  St. 
John  returning  home  after  the  Crucifixion  ;  "  Cano's  "  St.  Anthony  of 
Padua ;  "  some  strong,  dark  heads  by  Ribera ;  landscapes  and  ma- 
rine views  by  Claude  Lorraine  and  Claude  Vernet ;  and  the  "  King 
Midas,"  "  Adoration  of  the  Shepherds,"  and  "  Interment  of  Christ," 
by  Nicolas  Poussin. 

The  collection  of  Italian  schools  is  choice  and  brilliant.  Three 
saloons  and  six  cabinets  are  attractively  filled.  The  early  Florentine 
specimens  in  the  nineteenth  cabinet,  which  head  the  series  chrono- 
logically, are  of  no  extraordinary  artistic  value,  though  three  small 
panels  are  ascribed  to  Giotto,  an  "  Annunciation  "  to  Masolino,  a 
"  Portrait "  to  Masaccio,  some  insignificant  predella  pictures  to  Fra 
Angelico,  and  an  "  Adoration  of  the  Magi "  to  Gentile  da  Fabriano. 
An  altar-piece,  by  Ghirlandajo ;  a  "  Death  of  Lucretia,"  by  Andrea 
Mantegna;  a  fine  "Holy  Family,"  by  Andrea  del  Sarto ;  a  "Holy 
Family,"  by  Vasari ;  and  a  "  Magdalene,"  "  Infant  Jesus  with  Flow- 
ers," and  "  St.  Agnes,"  by  Carlo  Dolci,  are  of  later  date.  Perugino's 
"  Apparition  of  the  Virgin  "  is  in  his  early  tender  and  devotional  man- 
ner. Raphael's  handsome  portrait  of  Bindo  Altoviti,  with  blond  hair, 
a  black  cap,  and  face  looking  over  the  shoulder  at  the  spectator,  sug- 
gestive of  the  "  Violin-Player  "  in  the  Sciafra  Palace,  Rome,  was  long 
supposed  to  be  his  own  likeness.  Three  renowned  "  Madonnas,"  by 
Raphael,  may  also  be  counted  among  the  gems  of  Munich.  The 
"Madonna  della  Casa  Tempi,"  small  in  size,  but  extremely  sweet  in 
sentiment,  with  the  Virgin  caressingly  pressing  the  Child  to  her 
cheek  ;  a  larger  composition  catalogued  as  the  "  Holy  Family  of  the 
House  of  Canigiani  in  a  Landscape,"  the  Virgin  and  St.  Elizabeth 
sitting  opposite  each  other  on  the  turf,  with  the  holy  children  between 
them,  and  Joseph  leaning  on  a  staff;  and  the  much  more  celebrated 
"  Madonna  della  Tenda,"  with  its  green  curtain  in  the  background, 
and  the  Virgin  and  Child  seated  and  grouped  like  the  "Seggiola," 
but  with  more  sharply-outlined  and  less  gentle  features.  A  "Virgin 
and  Saints,"  transferred  from  wood  to  canvas,  but  well  preserved  in 
the  process,  is  attributed  to  Correggio,  though  its  authenticity  is 
doubtful. 

The  Bolognese  school  shows  to  good  advantage  both  in  size  and 
style.  Its  earliest  and  most  exquisite  specimen  is  the  "  Madonna  " 


THE   GALLERY  OF  MUNICH. 

0  jy 

of  Francia  Raibolini,  ••  adoring  the  Divine  Infant "  who  lies  before 
her  upon  blooming  roses.  Intense  purity  and  brilliancy  of  color  are 
here  united  to  the  most  holy  and  profound  sentiment.  An  ••  En- 
tombment," by  Lodovico  Carracci,  attests  the  reviving  power  of  the 
Eclectics.  Annibale  Carracci's  "  Susanna  "  and  "  Eros  and  Anteros 
fighting  before  Venus  "  are  not  in  his  best  method.  Guido  is  more 
famous  in  an  "Assumption  of  the  Virgin,"  graceful  in  attitude 
ethereal  in  expression,  pale  and  silvery  in  tint,  painted  on  silk,  prob- 
ably for  a  processional  banner.  His  "St.  Jerome  reading"  is  warmer 
and  more  vigorous  in  tone.  Domenichino's  "  Susanna  at  the  Bath  " 
is  a  large,  animated,  and  talented  production,  though  one  is  heartily 
weary  of  the  subject.  His  "St.  Jerome  writing,"  executed  on 
copper,  is  smaller  but  more  fiery  and  fervent  than  Goido's.  Lan- 
franco's  "  Hagar  in  the  Desert  "  is  large  enough  for  a  fresco  ;  while 
Cignani's  "  Assumption  of  Mary  "  is  positively  colossal.  Albani's 
"  Sleeping  Venus  "  is  a  fair  example  of  his  mythological  beauties. 
Guercino's  "  Christ  crowned  with  Thorns  "  may  be  contrasted  with 
Caravaggio's  rendering  of  the  same  event ;  and  Salvator  Rosa's  wild, 
savage  landscapes  are  sufficient  illustrations  of  the  dark,  fierce  style  of 
the  Tenebrosi. 

Among  the  Venetian  pictures  only  the  few  best  are  here  briefly 
noted.  The  portraits  of  Titian  and  Tintoretto  are,  as  ever,  powerful, 
splendid,  and  most  life-like.  A  seated  figure  of  Charles  V.,  cap  on 
head  and  glove  in  hand,  is  a  reminiscence  of  Titian's  visit  to  the 
Augsburg  imperial  court;  while  a  portrait,  robed  in  black,  with 
brown  fur  collar,  once  believed  to  be  Aretino,  is  superbly  strong, 
calm,  and  noble;  so  are  Tintoretto's  half-length  "Venetian  Senator," 
with  one  aristocratic  hand  on  his  staff  of  office,  the  other  on  his  sword- 
hilt,  and  his  smaller  but  realistic  and  forcible  "Anatomist,"  holding 
compass  and  bone.  Giorgione's  or  Palma  Vecchio's  likeness  is  emi- 
nently handsome,  ample,  and  manly.  Some  uncertainty  exists  in  re- 
gard to  Titian's  sacred  and  classical  paintings;  but  his  "Venus 
initiating  a  Young  Girl  into  the  Mysteries  of  Bacchus  "  is  one  of  the 
most  genuine.  A  fine  portrait  of  a  young  female  carrying  a  fan  of 
ostrich-feathers,  copied  from  an  old  original  by  Paris  Bordone,  shows 
us  the  features  of  Violante,  Titian's  love,  and  Palma  Vecchio's  daugh- 
ter. A  "Concert  Party,"  with  the  artist  himself  in  the  background, 
is  ascribed  to  Pordenone.  Paul  Veronese  gives  us  a  study-picture  of 
the  "Woman  taken  in  Adultery,"  a  "Suicide  of  Cleopatra,"  and  a 


560  APPENDIX. 

"  Repose  in  Egypt ; "  while  the  list  of  masterpieces  ends  with  Se- 
bastian del  Piombo's  large  "  Group  of  Saints,"  in  which  is  evidenced 
his  life-long  struggle  to  combine  the  design  of  Michael  Angelo  with 
Venetian  shade  and  color. 

THE   GALLERY   OF   BERLIN. 

THE  Berlin  Gallery,  unfortunate  in  being  one  of  the  last  gleaners 
in  the  art-harvests  of  the  past,  has  yet  secured  for  itself  an  honorable 
place  among  European  collections.  The  ambition  of  Frederick  the 
Great  was  not  limited  to  political  or  military  triumphs,  but  extended 
to  the  realm  of  the  fine  arts :  and  the  Kings  of  Prussia  have  done  their 
best  to  realise  his  ideal.  Few  great  masterpieces  were  left  to  pur- 
chase ;  yet  the  selections  have  been  so  judiciously  made  that  the  trav- 
eler would  not  willingly  miss  his  visit  to  the  Gallery  of  Berlin,  which 
is  particularly  rich  in  ancient  pictures  of  Italy  and  Flanders.  The 
Royal  Museum,  of  which  the  gallery  forms  a  part,  was  founded  by 
Frederick  William  III.,  about  the  year  1824.  The  New  Museum, 
which  communicates  with  the  Old,  is  celebrated  for  its  Egyptian 
curiosities,  its  ethnological  collection,  and  its  admirable  casts  of  an- 
tique, mediaeval,  and  modern  sculpture. 

Leaving  a  rotunda  adorned  with  statues  and  hung  with  tapestries 
from  the  cartoons  of  Raphael,  similar  to  those  at  Dresden,  we  enter 
the  suite  of  rooms  devoted  to  painting.  The  pictures,  numbering 
between  twelve  and  thirteen  hundred,  are  badly  divided  into  three 
sections,  in  the  first  of  which  we  find  specimens  of  the  Italian,  Span- 
ish, and  French  schools,  beginning  with  the  Venetians  ;  in  the  second, 
the  Dutch  and  German  schools ;  and  in  the  third,  "  Byzantine  paint- 
ing and  the  first  period  of  the  Italian,  Dutch,  and  German  schools." 
It  is  an  arrangement  in  which  the  last  should  be  first,  and  vice  versa; 
but  we  must  not  presume  to  dictate  to  royal  custodians.  In  the  fol- 
lowing pages  I  am  much  indebted  to  M.  Viardot's  classification  of 
the  gallery. 

Several  early  works  are  ascribed  to  Gian  Bellini,  Cima  da  Cone- 
gliano,  and  Vittore  Carpaccio,  one  of  the  most  singular  of  which  is 
Cima's  "  Miracle  of  St.  Ananias,"  who  heals  the  hand  of  a  shoemaker 
surrounded  by  a  crowd  of  Turks.  Nothing,  however,  of  much  im- 
portance is  discovered  till  we  approach  the  Tuscans,  where  a  "  Last 
Judgment  "  is  catalogued  as  the  joint  work  of  Fra  Angelico  and 


THE  GALLERY  OF  BERLIN.  -6j 

Cosimo  Roselli.  Roselli  doubtless  may  claim  the  credit  of  the  whole 
for  it  bears  but  little  trace  of  the  blessed  Angelico.  A  small  "  St! 
Dominic"  and  "St.  Francis"  are  thought  more  genuine.  .  Filippo 
Lippi,  Ghirlandajo,  Botticelli,  Signorelli,  and  Raffaellino  del  Garbo,  are 
all  represented  in  the  traditional  subjects  perpetually  repeated  through 
every  Italian  gallery.  A  large  "  Pieta,"  by  Andrea  del  Castagno,  is 
a  somewhat  rare  example  of  the  unamiable  artist  once  known  as 
"Andrea  the  Assassin;'.'  and  a  "Holy  Family,"  by  Andrea  Veroc- 
chio,  instructor  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  explains,  in  its  hard,  statue- 
like  outlines,  why  he  preferred  sculpture  to  painting.  Andrea  Man- 
tegna's  "Christ  mourned  by  Angels"  is  a  chef-d'amvre  of  that 
master.  Pinturrichio's  dramatic  "Adoration  of  the  Kings"  intro- 
duces us  to  the  Umbrian  school.  The  face  of  Perugino  is  said  to 
have  been  given  in  this  "  Adoration  "  to  the  youngest  of  the  three 
kings.  A  "  Glorified  Virgin,"  by  Giovanni  Santi,  father  of  Raphael, 
is  interesting,  not  only  as  showing  the  purely  Umbrian  qualities  of  his 
style,  but  because  in  the  figure  of  the  little  boy  standing  near  St. 
John  he  has  left  us  a  childish  likeness  of  his  beautiful  s'bn.  Some 
youthful  Perugian  pictures  are  also  here  attributed  to  Raphael  him- 
self, as,  for  instance,  an  old  altar-piece  of  "The  Worship  of  the 
Shepherds,"  painted  in  distemper  upon  silk  for  a  chapel  at  Feren- 
tillo.  It  is  much  injured  by  time  and  dampness,  but  still  displays 
the  genius  of  its  author. 

More  mature  specimens  by  Raphael  are  found  a  little  farther  on — 
especially  three  "  Madonnas,"  sweet-faced  and  innocent  in  aspect, 
limpid  and  delicate  in  color,  and  graceful,  though  not  always  easy,  in 
attitude.  Doubts  have  occasionally  been  expressed  as  to  whether 
one  or  more  of  them  may  not  have  proceeded  from  the  hand  of 
Perugino,  but  the  balance  of  probabilities  lies  in  favor  of  their  au- 
thenticity. Old  copies  of  "Pope  Julius,"  "Joan  of  Aragon,"  and 
others,  likewise  perpetuate  Raphael's  memory.  An  "  Ascension  of 
Mary,"  by  Fra  Bartolomeo,  is  a  record  of  his  artistic  skill  in  the  days 
when  he  labored  with  Mariotto  Albertinelli,  who  assisted  in  the  com- 
pletion of  this  present  piece.  A  superb  "  Virgin  and  Saints,"  by 
Andrea  del  Sarto,  grouping  some  twelve  personages  on  one  canyas, 
is  one  of  his  most  splendid  pictures  outside  of  Florence.  A  sketch 
of  Ffis  wife  may  be  the  original  design  for  her  charming  portrait  in 
the  Museum  of  Madrid. 

Correggio's  pictures  are  few,   but   fine — an   "  lo  and  Jupiter," 


562 


APPENDIX, 


rather  sombre,  though  soft  in  color;  and  a  "  Leda  with  the  Swan," 
beautifully  executed,  with  fair,  bright  landscape,  nymphs  and  Cupids, 
but  not  attractive  in  its  mythological  subject.  A  "  Head  of  Christ 
crowned  with  Thorns,"  painted  on  white  silk,  and  sometimes  called 
the  "  Handkerchief  of  St.  Veronica,"  is  ascribed  to  Correggio,  and  is 
undoubtedly  a  work  of  great  and  melancholy  beauty ;  but  critics  are 
slow  to  assign  it  to  his  brush.  Some  suppose  that  they  detect  in  its 
firm,  decided  outlines,  and  deep,  sad  eyes,  the  hand  of  the  Florentine 
Bronzino. 

Returning  to  the  Venetians,  we  perceive  a  portrait  of  two  men  in 
one  frame,  bearing  the  name  of  Giorgione,  but  probably  not  authen- 
tic ;  a  couple  of  serene  and  amply-proportioned  "  Madonnas,"  by 
Palma  Vecchio  ;  together  with  the  portrait  of  his  daughter ;  a  noble 
"Glorified  Virgin,"  "  Christ  washing  the  Feet  of  the  Disciples,"  and 
the  "Adulteress  before  Christ,"  by  Pordenone;  the  same  subject, 
less  powerfully  treated,  by  Bonifazio;  also,  two  large  "Madonnas 
with  Votaries,"  and  a  colossal  "  Adoration  of  the  Shepherds,"  by 
Moretto.  Several  others  are  catalogued  as  Titian's,  among  which  we 
may  distinguish  his  own  aged  but  expressive  portrait,  the  likeness  of 
the  Venetian  Admiral  Mauro,  and  the  famous  figure  known  as 
"  Titian's  Daughter,"  standing  with  an  uplifted  basket  of  fruit  above 
her  head,  her  smiling  face  thrown  back,  her  brown  eyes  turned  to  the 
spectator,  her  neck  encircled  by  pearls,  and  her  dress  of  glistening 
satin,  golden-brown.  A  group  of  "  Mary  with  the  Child  and  Wor- 
shiping Saints  "  shows  Paris  Bordone  to  admirable  advantage ;  but 
Paul  Veronese  is  feebly  represented  by  a  "  Dead  Christ,"  and  inferior 
classical  pieces.  Tintoretto  has  "  St.  Mark  instructing  Three  of  his 
Procurators,"  and  some  excellent  portraits,  which  are  always  a  spe- 
cialty of  the  Venetian  school.  Sebastian  del  Piombo  has  a  dark-toned, 
solemn  "  Crucifixion,"  and  a  "  Dead  Christ  supported  by  Joseph  of 
Arimathea  and  a  Weeping  Magdalene."  The  latter  is  an  effective 
composition,  painted  on  slate,  elevated  in  sentiment,  and  doubtless 
belonging  to  his  early  Roman  period. 

Very  few  Bolognese  pictures  of  the  time  of  the  Carracci  exist  in  Ber- 
lin.. We  need  only  mention  Lodovico  Carracci's  "  Feeding  of  the  Five 
Thousand,"  and  "  Punishment  of  Amor  ;  "  Annibale  Carracci's  series 
of  "Christ,  Mary,  St.  John  Baptist,  and  Twelve  Apostles,"  in  whose 
completion  he  was  aided  by  Domenichino  and  Albani ;  Guido  Reni's 
"St.  Paul  and  St.  Anthony  in  the  Desert,"  a  repetition  of  "  Fortuna," 


THE  GALLERY  OF  BERLIN.  -fa 

and  "Mary,  Queen  of  Heaven;"  "Madonnas,"  by  Guercino;  a 
"Deluge,"  by  Domenichino;  an  "Entombment,"  "St.  Matthew," 
"  Love  triumphant  over  Arts  and  Sciences,"  and  a  "  Young  Roman 
Girl,"  by  Caravaggio. 

In  the  room  of  Spanish  pictures  we  are  particularly  attracted  by 
Murillo's  "  St.  Anthony  of  Padua,"  recalling  the  grand  composition 
of  Seville.  It  has  the  softness,  tenderness,  and  passion  of  Murillo's 
most  ardent  style,  with  a  lovely,  graceful  Christ-child,  and  enchanting 
cherubs.  Other  smaller  works  assigned  to  Murillo  cannot  be  so 
highly  praised;  while  great  doubts  may  be  expressed  as  to  the 
genuineness  of  Velasquez's  portraits.  Zurbaran's  "  Scourging  of 
Christ  "  and  "  Franciscan  Monk  "  are  fine,  characteristic  specimens. 
Cano's  "  St.  Agnes  "  is  a  Spanish  ideal  of  womanhood;  and  Ribera's 
"  Martyrdom  of  St.  Bartolomeo,"  so  favorite  a  subject  with  its  author, 
is  as  strong  and  repulsive  under  cold  Prussian  skies  as  in  the  fen-id 
atmosphere  of  the  South.  Both  the  Spanish  and  French  collections 
seem  very  mixed.  Poussin's  classic  scenes  and  Claude's  sunny  land- 
scapes are  of  course  conspicuous.  Le  Brun's  celebrated  picture  of 
the  "  Jabach  Family  of  Cologne,"  Le  Sueur's  "  St.  Bruno  adoring  the 
Cross,"  and  Mignard's  expressive  portrait  of  "  Maria  Mancini,"  niece 
of  Cardinal  Mazarin,  are  masterpieces  worthy  of  the  Louvre. 

Among  the  relics  of  Flemish  art  none  can  compare  with  Van 
Eyck's  renowned  altar-piece  of  the  "  Adoration  of  the  Lamb."  This 
has  been  fully  described  in  the  chapter  on  early  Flemish  and  German 
Painting,  but  every  examination  of  the  work  wakens  new  admiration 
of  its  minute  and  perfect  detail.  The  veritable  altar-piece,  executed 
for  a  chapel  of  St.  Bavon,  Ghent,  is  now  divided  between  Ghent  and 
Berlin.  The  central  panel  at  Berlin  is  an  ancient  copy  by  Michael 
Cocxie,  and  represents  the  Lamb  adored  by  worshiping  hosts  ;  while 
on  the  original  wings  are  the  angel  Gabriel  and  the  Virgin  Mary,  as 
well  as  bands  of  judges,  champions,  pilgrims,  hermits,  chanting  an- 
gels, and  singing  saints.  An  ancient  "  Head  of  Christ,"  by  Jan  van 
Eyck,  very  Byzantine  in  type,  painted  on  a  green  ground,  with  golden 
aureole,  is  another  treasure  of  the  gallery.  Several  altar-pieces  of 
such  old  Flemings  as  Roger  van  der  Weyden,  are  authentic  and  most 
curious,  particularly  the  "  Middleburg  Altar-piece,"  Van  der  Wey- 
dJl's  "Adoration  of  the  Kings,"  and  Jerome  Bosch's  "Day  of 
Judgment"  and  "Hell."  Lucas  Cranach  is  scarcely  less  singular. 
Besides  his  devotional  pictures  he  has  the  usual  Saxon  portraits  of 


564 


APPENDIX. 


Luther,  Melanchthon,  and  Luther's  wife,  Catharine  von  Bora  ;  a  few 
classical  subjects,  in  one  of  which  ("  Hercules  and  Omphales  ")  the 
hero  Hercules  is  adorned  by  a  grotesque  female  bonnet ;  and,  more 
extraordinary  than  all,  quite  a  large  allegorical  composition,  entitled 
the  "  Fountain  of  Youth,"  in  which  decrepit  and  dismal  old  women 
throng  in  procession  to  the  famous  well,  pass  through  its  waters,  and 
trip  out  on  the  other  side  as  fair  and  blooming  damsels,  ready  to 
dance  a  measure  with  their  gallant  cavaliers.  Striking  portraits  by 
Holbein  have  likewise  their  place  in  the  collection;  and  Quintin 
Matsys,  Mabuse,  Sustermann,  and  Frans  Floris,  are  appropriately 
represented. 

Following  this  line  of  art  development  we  notice  the  genre  paint- 
ings and  landscapes  of  Breughel,  Bril,  and  Bloemart ;  together  with 
several  examples  by  Rubens,  of  which  the  most  charming  is  a  group 
of  the  "  Infant  Jesus,  the  Little  St.  John,  and  a  Child  Angel."  The 
much  more  pretentious  "  Resurrection  of  Lazarus  "  is  unfortunate  in 
its  figure  of  the  Saviour,  but  very  expressive  in  its  eager  Lazarus. 
"  St.  Cecilia  "  is  a  portly  and  rubicund  Flemish  dame,  with  a  heavy 
organ.  Vandyck  is  more  successful  than  ever  with  his  "  Children  of 
Charles  I.,"  and  displays  additional  portraits  of  the  "  Infanta  Isa- 
bella of  Spain  "  and  "  Prince  Thomas  of  Carignan."  The  best  of 
his  sacred  compositions  is  "  Penitent  Sinners  coming  to  Christ,"  in 
which  the  distinctive  heads  of  King  David,  the  Prodigal  Son,  and 
Mary  Magdalene,  are  most  beautifully  and  graphically  rendered. 
Teniers's  "  Temptation  of  St.  Anthony  "  and  "  Alchymist  in  his  Lab- 
oratory "  are  among  his  largest  and  finest  works.  Rembrandt  ap- 
pears most  forcibly  in  his  "  Moses  breaking  the  Tables  of  the  Law," 
and  "  Duke  Adolphus  of  Guelderland  menacing  his  Captive  Father." 
The  burly  duke,  shaking  his  huge  fist  at  the  prison-window,  is  a 
model  of  realistic  rage.  Honthorst  gives  us  "  Esau  selling  his  Birth- 
right," and  "  St.  Peter  delivered  by  an  Angel,"  with  his  usual  vivid 
contrasts  of  light  and  shade.  Gerard  Dow  has  a  "  Cook  "  entering 
a  pantry  with  light  in  hand  ;  and  "  Penitent  Magdalene,"  richly  clad 
in  velvet  and  sables,  with  table  before  her  covered  with  gold  and 
jewels.  Gerard  Terburg's  "  Paternal  Instruction,"  or  "  White  Satin 
Gown,"  which  is  simply  a  father  scolding  a  daughter  who  stands 
before  him  in  glistening  robes,  is  a  widely-celebrated  painting.  M*- 
ris's  own  portrait,  Metsu's  "  Dutch  Family,"  and  Jan  Steen's  "  Pub- 
lic Garden,"  are  less  popular  though  excellent  genre  pieces.  Van 


THE   GALLERY  OF  BERLIN.  -g 

der  Heist's  and  Denner's  portraits  lose  none  of  their  merit ;  and 
luysdael's,  Hobbema's,  Van  der  Neer's,  Van  der  Velde's,  and  Back- 
huysen's  landscapes  and  marine  views  maintain  the  same  high  repu- 
tation at  Berlin  as  in  other  parts  of  Germany. 

Byzantine  and  old  Italian  altar-pieces  and  panels  may  be  care- 
fully compared  with  early  examples  of  the  school  of  Cologne,  some- 
times to  the  advantage  of  the  latter.  A  triptych  of  the  "  Virgin  with 
Saints,"  and  a  painting  in  thirty-five  divisions,  from  "  Scenes  in  the 
Life  of  Christ,"  both  ascribed  to  Meister  Wilhelm,  particularly  de- 
serve attention. 

No  one  should  speak,  however  briefly,  of  the  Gallery  of  Berlin 
without  alluding  to  the  magnificent  frescoes  designed  by  Kaulbach  on 
the  staircase  of  the  New  Museum.  Though  modern  works,  they  are 
worthy  of  the  most  heroic  age  of  the  old  masters.  Six  principal  frescoes 
are  accompanied  by  sixteen  intermediate  paintings,  and  surrounded 
by  graceful  allegorical  arabesques.  They  illustrate  the  history  and 
culture  of  the  human  race,  commencing  with  the  "  Destruction  of 
the  Tower  of  Babel."  Nations  are  migrating;  Nimrod  is  on  his 
throne  ;  destroying  angels  overthrow  the  tower  ;  and  Jehovah  looks 
down  upon  its  ruin. 

Next  is  depicted  the  epoch  of  "  Homer  and  the  Greeks."  The 
blind  bard  is  sailing  toward  the  Grecian  coast.  Nereids  listen  to  his 
song ;  poets,  prophets,  and  sages,  assemble  to  welcome  him  ;  even 
the  gods  descend  on  a  rainbow,  and  join  the  expectant  throng.  Then 
follows  the  still  finer  "  Destruction  of  Jerusalem,"  with  avenging  proph- 
ets and  angels  in  the  heavens,  and  Titus  and  his  legions  entering 
the  city,  where  scenes  of  riot  and  bloodshed  are  enacting.  On  the 
left  hand  rushes  out  the  Wandering  Jew,  and  on  the  right  a  band  of 
guardian  angels  conducts  a  Christian  family  who  flee  in  terror  from 
the  spot.  This  is  succeeded  by  the  spectral  "  Battle  of  the  Huns," 
in  which  the  ghosts  of  the  dead  continue  the  great  combat  of  Chris- 
tianity with  paganism.  The  "  Crusaders  before  Jerusalem  "  shows 
us  Geoffrey  of  Boulogne,  King  of  Jerusalem,  offering  his  crown  to 
Christ,  whose  crown  of  thorns  he  would  assume.  Choristers  and 
champions  lead  the  army ;  Peter  of  Amiens  and  his  penitents  kneel 
in  the  foreground  ;  knights  and  minstrels  advance  toward  the  holy 
city,  which  shines  beyond  the  hills. 

Last  of  all,  we  behold  the  interior  of  a  Gothic  cathedral,  in  which 
are  grouped  a  company  of  distinguished  personages  who  represent 


566 


APPENDIX. 


the  "  Age  of  the  Reformation."  Luther,  on  a  platform,  with  Zwingli 
beside  him,  lifts  his  translation  of  the  Bible.  Calvin,  on  the  left, 
administers  the  Eucharist  to  some  of  his  adherents.  The  Electors 
of  Saxony,  King  Gustavus  Adolphus,  William  of  Orange,  and 
many  officers  and  citizens,  mingle  with  the  assemblage.  Wycliffe, 
Huss,  Abelard,  Savonarola,  Waldus,  and  Melanchthon,  are  in  the 
background  and  middle  distance,  as  are  also  Queen  Elizabeth,  the  Earl 
of  Essex,  Sir  Francis  Drake,  Archbishop  Cranmer,  and  Sir  Thomas 
More.  In  the  left  chapel  are  Copernicus,  Galileo,  Tycho  Brahe,  and 
Kepler  ;  in  the  right  chapel  Albrecht  Durer  at  work,  Gutenberg  with 
his  printed  pages,  Peter  Vischer  the  sculptor,  Michael  Angelo,  Leo- 
nardo da  Vinci,  and  Raphael.  On  one  side  of  the  foreground  are 
gathered  Hans  Sachs  the  cobbler  poet,  Shakespeare,  Cervantes,  and 
Petrarch,  while  not  far  off  the  knight  Ulrich  von  Hutten  holds  a 
laurel-wreath.  On  the  other  side  we  perceive  Columbus  with  his 
globe,  the  navigator  Behaim,  the  physician  Harvey,  Paracelsus, 
Leonard  Fuchs,  and  others.  All  these  life-sized  and  graphic  figures, 
natives  of  every  country,  and  masters  of  every  science,  combine  to 
symbolize  the  new  era  of  wisdom,  art,  and  progress,  which  brings 
the  world  more  light  and  freedom,  and  educates  the  race  to  its  own 
high  standard.  To  such  education  painters  like  Kaulbach  may  con- 
tribute, as  well  as  reformers  like  Luther,  or  poets  like  Shakespeare. 


INDEX    OF   ARTISTS. 


Achenbach,  425. 

Albani,   Francesco,    239,   455,  507, 

527,  550,  559- 
Albertinelli,  Mariotto,  68,  120,  123, 

451,  490,  494. 

Allegri,  Antonio  (see  Correggio). 
Allori,  Alessandro,  223,  507. 
Allori,  Cristoforo,  223,  451,  499. 
Allston,  Washington,  444. 
Altdorfer,  Albrecht,  278. 
Alunno,  Niccolo,  113,  453,  502. 
Amberger,  Christopher,  284. 
Amerighi,  Michael  Angelo  (see  Cara- 

vaggio). 
Angelico,  Fra,  52-57,  67,  70,  71,  87, 

451,491,492,494,509,527. 
Angelo,  Michael  (see  Buonarotti). 
Antonello  da  Messina,  100,  516,  537. 
Antonio  da  Murano,  187,  188. 
Aretino,  Spinello,  51. 
Armitage,  443. 

Backhuysen,  Ludolf,  333,  460,  565. 
Bagnacavallo  (Bartolommeo  Ramen- 

ghi),  226,  453,  544. 
Barbarelli,  Giorgio  (see  Giorgione). 
Barbieri,  Francesco  (see  Guercino). 
Barry,  James,  402,  462. 
Baroccio,  Federigo,  229,  453,  495, 

502,  509. 
Bartolommeo,    Fra    (Baccio     della 

Porta),  65,  74,  120,  451,  490, 

493,  497,  499-  53°,  561. 
37 


Bartolo,  Taddeo,  70. 

Bassano  (Jacopo  da  Ponte),  217,  454, 

504,  515,  522. 

Battoni,  Pompeo,  245,  453,  5og,.546. 
Bazzi  or  Razzi  (see  II  Sodoma). 
Beard,  447. 
Bellini,  Gentile,  187,  189,  190,  454, 

512. 
Bellini,  Gian,  187, 190-193,  195,  454, 

495,  508,  512,    514,  536,   537, 

560. 

Bellini,  Jacopo,  187-189,  454. 
Bellotti  (Canaletto),  218,  454,  515. 
Bendemann,  424. 
Berghem,  Nicolas,  330,  460,  551. 
Berruguete,  Alonzo,  342,  461. 
Bierstadt,  Albert,  446. 
Bigio,  Francia,  177,  220,  550. 
Blake,  William,  404,  462. 
Bles,  Henri  de,  289. 
Bloemart,  Abraham,  313,  564. 
Bol,  Ferdinand,  321,  459,  548. 
Bonheur,  Auguste,  434. 
Bonheur,  Rosa,  434. 
Bonnat,  431. 
Bonifazio  Bembi,  210,  454,  502,  508, 

512,  544,  562. 
Bonvicino  Alessandro    (see  II  Mo- 

retto). 
Bordone,  Paris,  211,  454,  511,  536, 

544,  559,  562. 

Bosch,  Jerome,  261,  524,  563. 
Both,  Jan,  314,  460,  509,  551,  554. 


568 


INDEX  OF  ARTISTS. 


Botticelli,    Sandro,    107,   451,   492, 

552. 

Bough,  442. 
Boughton,  446. 
Bouguereau,  433. 
Boulanger,  432. 
Bouts,  Dierick,  310. 
Brauwer,  Adrian,  315. 
Breughel,  Peasant,  290,  458. 
Breughel,  Jan,  291,  458,    552,  557, 

564- 

Breughel,  H611en,  291,  552. 
Breton,  Jules,  434. 
Brett,  442. 

Browne,  Henriette,  434. 
Bril,  Paul,  289,  458,  552,  564. 
Bronzino,  Angiolo,  223,   451,   494, 

562. 
Brun,    Charles   Le,  379,   461,    531, 

532,  563- 
Buonarotti,  Michael  Angelo,  83,  135, 

140-156,    1 66,    451,    469,    493, 

498,  537- 

Cabanel,  434. 

Cagliari,  Paolo  (see  Veronese). 

Calcott,  Augustus,  411,  463,  541. 

Calderon,  443. 

Callot,  Jacques,  372,  461,  509,  516. 

Cano,  Alonzo,  349,  461,   518,  520, 

547,  558,  563- 

Caravaggio  (M.  Angelo  Amerighi), 
241,  452,   455,  494,   503,    504, 

505,  507,  543,  559>  563. 
Caravaggio,  Polidoro  da,  226. 
Canale,  218,  454. 
Canaletto,  218,  454,  515. 
Carpaccio,   Vittore,  193,   454,    512, 

536,  560. 
Carracci,  Lodovico,  231,  455,   504, 

509,  550,  559,  562. 


Carracci,  Agostino,  232,  455. 
Carracci,  Annibale,   232,  455,   504, 

527,  537,  543,  550,  559-  5°2. 
Carucci,  Jacopo  (see  Pontormo). 
Casilear,  447. 

Castagno,  Andrea,  100,  451,  561. 
Cespedes,  Pablo  de,  344,  461. 
Champagne,  Philippe  de,  305. 
Chapman,  446. 
Church,  Frederick,  446. 
Cigoli  (Lodovico  Cardi),  230,  451. 
Cima  da  Conegliano,  193,  194,  454, 

515,  544,  552,  560. 
Cimabue,  Giovanni,  33-38,  40,    70, 

451,  489,  492,  526,  535. 
Clouet,  Fran9ois,  371,  461,  531. 
Coello,  Alonzo,  344,  461,  518. 
Cole,  Thomas,  446. 
Coleman,  447. 

Collins,  William,  411,  463,  541. 
Compte  Calix,  434. 
Constable,  John,  410,  463,  541. 
Cope,  443. 

Copley,  John,  401,  462,  541. 
Cornelius,  Peter  von,  422,  459. 
Corot,  434. 
Correggio  (Antonio  Allegri),  84,  89, 

179-186,    452,   478,    493,    506, 

522,  525,  535,  537,  544,  545,  55O, 

562. 

Cortona,  Pietro  da,  505,  516,  528. 
Cosimo,  Piero  di,  119,  219,  451. 
Costa,  Lorenzo,  no. 
Courbet,  Gustave,  434. 
Cousin,  Jean,  370,  461,  531. 
Couture,  432. 
Cox,  David,  420. 
Coxcie,  Michael,  266. 
Cranach,  Lucas,  285,  459,  493,  508, 

538,  552,  564. 
Cranach,  Lucas  (the  Younger),  286. 


INDEX  OF  ARTISTS. 


569 


Credi,  Lorenzo  di,  74, 124,  451,  492, 

506,  535- 
Creswick,  439. 
Cristus,  Petrus,  260. 
Crivelli,  Carlo,  193,  454,  502,  535. 
Cropsey,  447. 
Cuyp,  Albert,  313,  460. 

Daubigny,  434. 

David,  Jacques  Louis,  385,  462,  533, 

534- 

'Decamps,  Gabriel,  431. 
De  Haas,  447. 

Delacroix,  Eugene,  430,  462,  534. 
Delaroche,  Paul,  428,  462,  534. 
Denner,   Balthasar,  306,   459,    549, 

565. 

Desgoffe,  434. 
Diaz,  434. 
Dietrich,  Christian,  306,  459,   552, 

554- 

Dix,  447- 
Dobson,  443. 
Dolce,  Carlo,  92,  244,  451,  490,  495, 

498,  499,  507,  508,  545,  558. 
Dolce,  Agnese,  245. 
Domenichino,  91,  92,  234-236,  455, 

472,    501,  504,   507,   510,    527, 

559-  563- 

Dore1,  Gustave,  432. 
Dossi,  Dosso,  227,  452,  507. 
Dow,  Gerard,  322,  460,  494,    526. 

529,  540,  551,  557,  564- 
Dubufe,  432. 

Duccio,  39,  40,  75,  45°.  535- 
Dughet,  Gaspar,  376,  509. 
Dupre\  434. 
Durand,  447. 
Durer,  Albrecht,  82,  192,  270-278, 

459,  493,  524,  538,  549-  554- 
Dyce,  William,  438. 


Eastlake,  Charles,  417,  463,  541. 
Eckhout,  Gerbrandt  van  der,  321 

505. 

Egg,  Augustus,  439. 
Elliott,  446. 

Engelbrechtsen,  Cornelis,  311,  554. 
Etty,  William,  416,  463,  541. 
Eyck,  Hubert  van,  251,  458. 
Eyck,  Margaret  van,  251,  259,  538. 
Eyck,  Jan  van,  251-259,  458,  526 

538,  549,  563. 

Fabriano,  Gentile  da,  in,  188,  453. 

491. 

Faed,  Thomas,  443. 
Filipepi,  Sandro  (see  Botticelli). 
Flandrin,  Hippolyte,  432. 
Flaxman,  John,  404. 
Fleury,  Robert,  432. 
Flinck,  Govaert,  321,  459. 
Floris,  Frans,  288,  564. 
Forli,  Melozzo  da,  99.  503. 
Fortuny,  434. 
Foster,  Birket,  444. 
Foucquet,  Jean,  369,  461. 
Francia,  II,  74,  89,  109,  502,  506, 

536,  544,  549-  559-      ' 
Freeman,  446. 
Frere,  Edouard,  434. 
Frith,  William,  443. 
Fromentin,  431. 
Fuseli,  Henry,  402,  462. 
Fyt,  Jan,  297. 

GaddL,  Gaddo,  31. 

Gaddi,  Taddeo,  46,  66,  67,  72,  451. 

Gainsborough,   Thomas,   399,  462, 

541. 
Garbo,   RafTaelino    del,    124,    45*. 

490. 


57° 


INDEX  OF  ARTISTS. 


Garofalo,  Benvenuto  Tisio,  92,  227, 
452,  504,  507-  535,  544- 

Gele"e,  Claude  ( see  Lorraine, 
Claude.) 

Gerard,  Frar^ois,  387,  462,  533. 

Gericault,    Jean    Louis,    389,   462, 

532. 

Ge>6me,  Jean  L£on,  431. 
Ghirlandajo,  Domenico,  64,  66,  68, 

76,  105,  141,  451,  526,  558. 
Gilford,  446. 
Gignoux,  447. 
Giordano,  Luca,  244,  365,  456,  509, 

516,  517,  523,  547- 
Giorgione  (Giorgio  Barbarelli),  194- 

197,  454,  495,  497,   5*4,    522, 

544,  559,  562. 
Giottino,  46,  451. 
Giotto,  34,  38,  41-46,  67,  70,  71,  74, 

76,   79,  81,  82,  451,  489.  492> 

509,  558. 
Giunta  da  Pisano,  32,  33,  38,  71, 

552. 

Goes,  Hugo  van  der,  260. 
Goodall,  443. 

Goya,  Francisco,  367,  461. 
Goyen,  Jan  van,  313,  460. 
Gozzoli,  Benozzo,  98,  451,  502,  527. 
Graham,  442. 

Granet,  Francois,  388,  462,  533. 
Grant,  443. 
Greuze,   Jean    Baptiste,   384,    462, 

533- 

Gros,  Jean  Antoine,  386,  462,  533. 
Griinewald,  Matthias,  279. 
Gubbio,  Oderisio  of,  ill,  453. 
Guercino  (Francesco  Barbieri),  240, 

455,  493,  499,   502,   504,   5o8, 

509,   510,  527,   543,   559,  563. 
Guido  Reni,  77,  78,  236-239,  455, 

480,  482,  495,  498,   499,  502, 


504,  505,    508,   509,  5io,   527, 
538,  543,  550,  559-  502. 
Guido  of  Sienna,  32,  450. 

Haarlem,  Gerard  van,  310,  554. 

Hals,  Frank,  315,  459. 

Hamon,  431. 

Hart,  447. 

Harvey,  444. 

Haseltine,  447. 

Haydon,    Benjamin    Robert,    412, 

463,  541- 
Healy,  446. 
Heem,  David  de,  335,  460,  551,  555, 

557- 
Heist,  Bartholomew  van  der,  323, 

459,  548,  554,  565- 
Hemskerk,  Martin,  312. 
Herrara,  Francisco,  347. 
Heyden,  Jan  van  der,  334,  460,  557. 
Hobbema,  Mindert,  329,  460,  565. 
Hogarth,    William,    394-396,   462, 

541. 

Holbein,  Sigmund,  280. 
Holbein,  Hans,  280,  459,  554. 
Holbein,  Hans  (the  Younger),  281- 

284,  459,  526,  549,  554,  564. 
Hondekoeter,    Melchior,    335,   551, 

555- 
Honthorst,    Gerard,  315,  460,   495, 

508,  548,  556,  564. 
Hooghe,  Peter  de,  327,  460,  557. 
Hook,  442. 
Hunt,  Holman,  439. 
Huntington,  Daniel,  446. 
Huysum,  Jan   van,   335,   529,   551, 

557- 

Imola,  Innocenza  da,  226. 
Ingres,  Jean  Auguste,  386. 
Inman,  446. 


INDEX  OF  ARTISTS. 


571 


Inness,  447. 


Joanes,  Juan,  341,  461,  518. 
Jordaens,  Jacob,  298,  548. 
Justus  of  Ghent,  260. 

Kalf,  Willem,  335,  460. 
Kaufmann,  Angelica,  308,  459,  496, 

542,  552. 
Kaulbach,   Wilhelm  von,  424,  459, 

565.      . 
Kensett,  446. 
Kneller,  Godfrey,  393. 
Knight,  443. 
Konincx,  Soloman,  321. 

Lambinet,  434. 

Landelle,  431. 

Landseer,  Sir  Edwin,  435,  463,  542. 

Lanfranco,  Giovanni,  241,  455,  543, 

559- 
Lawrence,  Sir  Thomas,   406,   463, 

541- 
Leal,  Juan  de  Valdes,  364,  461,  521, 

547- 

Lebrun,  Elsiabeth,  387,  462,  496.- 
Leighton,  Frederick,  442. 
Lely,  Sir  Peter,  393,  500. 
Leonardo   da  Vinci,  76,  104,  126- 

I37V  45L  452,  475.  49°.  494, 

522,  525,  530. 
Leslie,   Charles   Robert,  418,   463, 

541. 

Lessing,  424. 
Lesueur,  Eustache,  378,  460,   532, 

563. 

Leutze,  Emmanuel,  445. 
Lewis,  443. 

Leyden,  Lucas  of,  311,  459. 
Linnell,  442. 
Liotard,  552. 


Lippi,  Fra  Filippo,  64,  65,  97,  451, 

535- 

Lippi.  Filippino,  97,  108,  451,  535. 
Lorraine,    Claude  (Claude    Gel6e), 

376-378,   460,    495,    505,   523. 

531,  533,  551,  558,  563. 
Luini,  Bernardino,  64,  77,  86,  89, 

138,  452,  493.  499-  505,  536. 

Mabuse  (Gossaert),  265,    551,  554, 

564. 

Maclise,  Daniel,  438,  463,  541. 
Macnee,  444. 
Malbone,  445. 
Mantegna,    Andrea,    86,    101-103, 

179,   189,  451,  502,   504,  529, 

536,  537,  558,  561. 
Maratta,  Carlo,  245,  453,  509,  545. 
Margaritone  of  Arezzo,  33,  535. 
Masaccio,  89,  96,  451,  494,  558. 
Masolino,  96,  451. 
Matsys,  Quintin,  266, 458,  505,  528, 

538,  542,  564. 
Mazzuola    Francesco  (see    Parma- 

giano,  II). 

Medola  Andrea  (see  Schiavone). 
Meire,  Gerard  van  der,  260. 
Meissonier,  Jean  Louis  Ernest,  433. 
Meister  Wilhelm,    249,   457,    538, 

553.  565- 
Meister   Stephan,    249,    457,    538, 

553- 

Melzi,  Francesco,  139. 
Memling,  Hans,  261-265,  458,  553- 
Memmi,  Simone,  47,  450,  492. 
Memmi,  Lippi,  47,  492. 
Mengs,  Raphael,  307,  367,  459,  552. 
Messina,  Antonella  da,  100,  516,  537. 
Metsu,  Gabriel,  324,  460,  529,  551, 

564. 
Meulen,  Anton  van  der,  305. 


572 


INDEX  OF  ARTISTS. 


Mierevelt,  314,  459,  548. 

Mieris,  Frans,  325,  460,  551,    557 

564- 

Mignard,  Pierre,  381,  461,  532,  563. 
Millais,  John  Everett,  441. 
Millet,  Fran9ois,  434. 
Morales,  Luis,  343,  461,  518,  547. 
Moretto,  II,  92,  211,  454,  502,  536, 

544,  562. 

Morland,  George,  405,  463. 
Moroni,  Giambatista,  211,  454,  508, 

536. 

Mulready,  William,  415,  463,  541. 
Murillo,  Bartolomeo  Esteban,  359- 

364,  461,   485,   499,  503,  508, 

519,  520,    526,    528,   537,  547, 

558,  563- 

Nasmyth,  Patrick,  415,  463. 
Navarette,    Juan     Fernandez     (El 

Mudo),  344,  461. 
Neefs,  Peter,  334,  529,  551,  557. 
Neer,  Artus  van  der,  330,  460,  565. 
Nelli,  Ottaviano,  III,  453. 
Netscher,    Caspar,    326,    460,    540, 

551,  557- 
Northcote,  James,  403,  462. 

Oggione,  Marco  d',  134,  139,  545. 
Opie,  John,  403,  462. 
Orcagna,  Andrea,  48,  49,  451,  535. 
Orley,  Bernard  van,  266. 
Ostade,  Adrian  van,  324,  460. 
Ostade,  Isaac  van,  324. 
Overbeck,  Friedrich,  422,  423,  459. 
Cutwater,  Albert  van,  310. 

Pacheco,  Francisco,  348. 

Page,  William,  446. 

Palma,  Jacopo  (see  Vecchio,  Palma). 

Palmerucci,  Guido,  in,  453. 


Parmagiano,  II  (Francesco  Mazzuo- 
la),  92,  228,  452,  497,  507,  536, 

545- 

Patinier,  Joachim,  289. 
Paton,  Noel,  444. 
Penni,  Francisco,  225,  226,  453. 
Perugino,   II  (Pietro  Vanucci),   6y, 

74,  81,  86,  89,  113,   159,   452, 

490,  502,  529,  536,  549,  558. 
Phillip,  439. 
Piloty,  426. 
Pinturicchio,  66,  117,  452,  500,  516, 

550,  561. 
Piombo,    Sebastian   del,    155,    172, 

209,  454,  498,    505,    507,    522 

536,  537,  56o,  562. 
Pippi,  Giulio  (see  Romano,  Giulio). 
Pisano,  Giunta  da,  32,  33,  38,  71, 

552. 

Pontormo  (Jacopo  Canicci),  222. 
Pordenone,  208,  454,  508,  511,  544, 

559-  562. 

Potter,  Paul,  331,  460,  551. 
Pourbus,  Franz,  289. 
Poussin,  Nicolas,  373-376,  461,  503, 

509,  531,  538,  558,  563- 
Primaticcio,  Francesco,  371. 
Protais,  432. 
Prout,  Samuel,  420. 
Prud'hon,  Pierre  Paul,  387,  462. 

Raeburn,  Henry,  406,  463. 

Raibolini,  Francesco  ( see  Fran- 
cia,  II).  . 

Ramenghi,  Bartolommeo  (see  Bagna- 
cavallo). 

Raphael  Santi,  67,  68,  75,  77,  79, 
82,  89,  90,  92,  140,  149,  157- 
179,  451,  464,  467,  492,  497, 
499.  SGI,  506,  509,  521,  529, 
536,  558,  561- 


INDEX  OF  ARTISTS. 


573 


Razzi,  or  Bazzi  (see  Sodoma,  II). 
Rembrandt  van  Ryn,  316-321,  459, 

529-  539.  548,  554,  556,  564- 
Reni,  Guido  (see  Guido). 
Reynolds,  Sir  Joshua,  396-399,  462, 

540,  541- 

Ribalta,  Francisco,  351,  461,  518. 
Ribera,  Josef  de  (Lo  Spagnoletto), 

242,  352,  455,  456,  461,   507, 

509,  520,  526,  547,  563. 
Ricciarelli,  Daniele  (see  Volterra). 
Richards,  447. 

Rigaud,  Hyacinthe,  382,  462,  526. 
Robert,  Leopold,  390,  462,  534. 
Roberts,  David,  419,  463. 
Robusti,  Jacopo  (see  Tintoretto). 
Roelas,  Juan  de  las,  345,  460,  518. 
Roman elli,  245. 
Romano,  Giulio,  165,  175,  177,  225, 

453,  493,  504,  535,  545- 
Romney,  George,  400,  462. 
Roselli,  Cosimo,  99,  451,  526,  561. 
Rosa,  Salvator,  242,  455,  456,  498, 

500,  509,  523,  538,  559. 
Rossi,  Rosso  di  (Maitre  Roux),  371. 
Rotermund,  424. 
Rousseau,  434. 
Rubens,  Peter  Paul,  291-297,  458, 

486,   493,  495,  498,  499,   509, 

523,  526,   528,  539,   547,  555, 

564- 

Ruysch,  Rachel,  335,  557. 
Ruysdael,  Solomon,  328. 
Ruysdael,  Jacob,  328,  460,  551,  565. 

Salaino,  Andrea,  139. 

Sacchi,  Andrea,  245,  503. 

Salvator  Rosa  (see  Rosa). 

Saintin,  434. 

Sant,  443. 

Santi,  Giovanni,  IO2,  119,  453,  561. 


Santi,  Raphael  (see  Raphael). 
Sarto,  Andrea  del  (Andrea  Vannu- 

chi),  66,  76,  91,  219-222,  451, 

493,  497,  499-  SOD,   522,   530, 

544,  558,  561. 
Sassoferrato  (Salvi),  244,  453,  503, 

528,  537,  545. 
Savery,  Roland,  291. 
Schadow,  Wilhelm,  422,  424. 
Schaffner,  Martin,  279,  554. 
Schalken,  Gottfried,  326,  529,  551 

556. 

Scheffer,  Ary,  426,  462. 
Schiavone  (Andrea  Medola),  2it. 
SchSn,  Martin,  268,  459,  538. 
Schoreel,  Hans,  312. 
Seghers,  Daniel,  291. 
Siena,  Guido  da,  32,  450. 
Signol,  432. 

Signorelli,  Luca,  76,  104,  451. 
Snyders,  Franz,  297,  458,  523,  548, 

555- 

Sodoma,  II,  77,  224,  450,  494. 
Solario,  Andrea,  139. 
Sonntag,  447. 

Spagnoletto,  Lo  (see  Ribera). 
Squarcione,  Francisco,  101, 189,  552. 
Stanfield,  Clarkson,  419,  463,  542. 
Steen,  Jan,  325,  551,  564. 
Stephan,    Meister,    249,    457,    538, 

553- 

Steenwyck,  Hendrick  van,  334,  551. 
Stuart,  Gilbert,  445. 
Stothard,  Thomas,  405,  462. 
Sustermann     (Lambert     Lombard), 

288,  564. 
Swanevelt,  Hermann,  330. 

Tafi,  Andrea,  30. 

Teniers,  David,  303. 

Teniers,  David  (the  Younger),  303- 


574 


INDEX  OF  ARTISTS. 


305,   458,  524,   529,  539,  551, 

557,  564- 
Terburg,  Gerard,  323,  460,  529,  540, 

551,  555,  557,  564- 
Thornhill,  James,  394. 
Tintoretto,  II  (Jacopo  Robusti),  212- 

215,  453,  504,  513,  5I4- 

Titian  (Tiziano  Vecellio),  67,  71,  79, 
180, 194, 195, 197-208, 453,  477, 
494,  495,499,  502,  505,  506, 
508,  511,  513,  521,  525,  530, 
536,  543,  550,  559-  502. 

Tisio  (see  Garofalo). 

Toulmouche,  434. 
'Trioson,  Girodet,  386,  532. 

Troyon,  Constantine,  434. 

Turner,  Joseph  Mallord  William, 
407-410,  463,  540. 

Uccello,  Paolo,  95,  451. 

Vaga,  Perino  del,  226,  453. 

Vandyck,  Anton,  298-302,  458,493, 
499,  500,  508,  523,  526,  529, 
539,  548,  554,  556,  564- 

Vannucci,  Pietro  (see  P.erugino). 

Vannuchi,  Andrea  (see  Sarto,  An- 
drea del). 

Vargas,  Luis  de,  340,  461. 

Vasari,  Giorgio,  223,  451,  509,  528, 
558. 

Vecellio,  Tiziano  (see  Titian). 

Vedder,  446. 

Veen,  Otto  van,  312,  557. 

Vecchio,  Palma,  206,  208,  454,  505, 
508,  516,  530,  544,  550,  559, 
562. 

Veil,  Philip,  422. 

Velasquez,  Diego,  354-359,  461,  505, 
5i8,  519. 

Velde,  Adrian  van  de,  332,  460. 


Velde,  Willem  van  de,  332,  460,  539, 

565. 

Veneziano,  Domenico,  100. 
Venusti,  Marcello,  155. 
Vernet,  Horace,  388,  462,  534. 
Vernet,  •  Claude   Joseph,  383,   462, 

530,  558. 
Veronese,    Paul   (Cagliari),   75,    89, 

215-217,   454,   496,    500,    502, 

504,   508,  512,   514,  525,  535, 

544,  546,  559,  562. 
Vibert,  434. 

Vien,  Joseph  Marie,  384. 
Vinci,  Leonardo  da  (see  Leonardo). 
Vite,  Timoteo  della,  226,  506. 
Vivarini,  Bartolomeo,  188,  454,  516. 
Volterra,  Daniele  da,  78,  155,  156, 

451,  473- 
Vouet,  Simon,  371,  461,  531. 

Watteau,  Antoine,  383,  462. 

Watts,  Frederick,  442. 

Weenix,  Jan,  334,  460,  551,  555. 

Weir,  447. 

Werff,  Adrian  van  der,  327,  460,  529, 

SSL  555-  557- 

West,  Benjamin,  400,  462,  541. 
Weyden,  Roger  van  der,  260,  261, 

458,  539,  549,  553,  5^3- 
Weyden,      Roger     van     der    (the 

Younger),  261,  539. 
Whistler,  442. 
WThittredge,  447. 
Wilhelm,  Meister,  249,  457,  538,  553, 

565. 

Wilkie,  David,  413,  463,  541. 
Wilson,  Richard,  400,  541. 
Wohlgemuth,  Michael,  250, 269, 459, 

554- 
Wouvermans,  Philip,  331,  460,  555, 

557- 


INDBX  OF  ARTISTS. 


\Vynants,  Jan,  313,  460. 
Yewell,  447. 

Zampieri,  Domenico  (see  Domeni- 
chino). 


575 


Zeitblom,  Bartholomew,  279. 
Zuccaro,  Federigo,  230,  453. 
Zuccaro,  Taddeo,  230,  453. 
Zurbaran,  Francisco,  346,  461,  518, 
547,  553,  563- 


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by  JAMES  HINTON.     With  50  Illustrations,     i  vol.,  i2mo.     Price,  $2.25. 
"  This  book  is  one  of  rare  value,  and  will  prove  useful   to  a  large  class  hi  the  community.    Its  chief 
recommendation  is  in  its  applying  the  laws  of  the  science  of  physiology  to  cases  of  the  deranged  or  diseased 


perations  of  the  organs  or  processes  of  the  human  system.     It  la  as  therou 
the  Infor 

t  simple  .  . 

Of  all  the  works  upon  health  of  a  popular  character  which  we  have  met  with  for  some  time,  and  we 


tem.     It  la  as  theroughly  practical  as  Is  a  book  of 

formulas  of  medicine  and  the  style  in  which  the  Information  Is  given  Is  so  entirely  devoid  of  the  mystification 

n  easil     comprehend  (i."—  Button  GatiUi. 


of  technical  or  scientific  terms  that  the  most  simple  can  easily  comp 
"  Of  all  the  works  upon  health  of  a  popular  character  which  we 

are  glad  to  think  that  this  most  Important  branch  of  knowledge  is  becoming  more  enlarged  every  day, 
the  work  before  us  appears  to  be  the  simplest,  the  soundest,  and  the  beet"—  L'iieayo  Inter-Ocean. 

THE  GREAT  ICE  AGE,  and  its  Relations  to  the  Antiquity  of 

Man.    By  JAMES  GEIKIE,  F.  R.  S.  E.    With  Maps,  Charts,  and  numerous  Illus- 
trations.    i  vol.,  thick  i2mo.     Price,  $2.50. 

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unscientific  minds  alike."—  Boston  Oaiettt. 

"  Every  step  In  the  process  Is  traced  with  admirable  perspicuity  and  fullness  by  Mr.  Geikle. 
don  Saturday 


The  Great  Ice  Age,'  by  James  fleikle.ls  a  book   that  unites  the  popular  and  abstruse  element*  of 

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l  Bulleti 


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scientific  research  to  a  remarkable  degree.    The  author  recounts  a  story  that  is  more  romantic  than  nine 
els  out  of  ten,  and  we  h*ve  read  the  book  from  first  to  last  with  unflagging  Interest."—  Baton  Commt 


ADDRESS  DELIVERED  BEFORE   THE  BRITISH  ASSOCIA- 

TION, assembled  at  Belfast.  By  JOHN  TYNDALL,  F.  R.  S.,  President  Re- 
vised, with  additions,  by  the  author,  since  the  delivery.  12010.  130  pages. 
Paper.  Price,  50  cents. 

Thi:  edition  of  this  now  famous  address  Is  the  only  one  authorised  by  the  author,  and  contains  addi- 
tions and  corrections  not  in  the  newspaper  reports. 

THE  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  MAN.  Designed  to  represent  the  Existing  State 
of  Physiological  Science  as  applied  to  the  Functions  of  the  Human  Body.  By 
AUSTIN  FLINT,  Jr.,  M.  D.  Complete  in  Five  Volumes,  octavo,  of  about  500 
pages  each,  with  105  Illustrations.  Cloth,  $22.00  ;  sheep,  $27.00.  Each  vol- 
ume sold  separately.  Price,  cloth,  $4.50;  sheep,  $5.50.  The  fifth  and  last 
volume  has  just  been  issued. 

The  above  Is  bv  far  the  most  complete  work  on  human  physiology  In  the  English  l«n(mage.  It  treats 
of  the  functions  of  the  human  body  from  a  practical  point  of  view,  and  Is  enriched  by  many  original  ex- 
p.-rinients  and  observations  by  the  author.  Considerable  space  Is  given  to  physiological  anatomy,  par- 
ticularly the  structure  of  glandular  organs,  the  digestive  system,  nervous  intern,  blood-veueli,  organs  of 
special  sense,  and  organs  of  generation.  It  not  only  considers  the  various  functions  of  the  body,  from  u 
experimental  stand-point,  but  is  peculiarly  rich  In  citations  of  the  literature  of  physiology.  It  I*  thewfnrt 
Invaluable  as  a  work  of  reference  for  those  who  wish  to  study  the  subject  .>f  phvsfology  exhaustively.  Ai 
a  complete  treatise  on  a  subject  of  such  Interest,  It  should  be  In  the  libraries  of  literary  and  scientific  mro, 
as  well  as  in  the  hands  of  practitioners  and  student*  of  medicine.  Illustrations  an  Introduced  wberaver 
they  are  necessary  for  the  elucidation  of  the  text. 

D.  APPLETON  &  CO.,  PUBLISHERS,  549  &  551  Broadway,  N.  Y. 


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THE  NATIVE  RACES  OF  THE  PACIFIC  STATES. 

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pathy  and  suppor 

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A  BBIEF  HISTORY  OF  CULTURE. 

By  JOHN  S.  HITTELL.     I  vol.,  I2mo.     Price,  $1.50. 

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distinctly  by  several  writers.  .  .  .  Mr.  Hittell's  method  is  compact,  embracing  a  wide 
field  in  a  few  words,  often  presenting  a  mere  hint,  when  a  fuller  treatment  is  craved  by 
the  reader;  but,  although  his  book  cannot  be  commended  as  a  model  of  literary  art,  it 
may  be  consulted  to  great  advantage  by  every  lover  of  free  thought  and  novel  sugges- 
tions.' --N.  Y.  Tribune. 

THE    HISTORY  OF    THE    CONFLICT    BETWEEN    RE- 
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By  JOHN  W.  DRAPER,  M.  D.,  author  of  "The  Intellectual  Develop- 
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small,  is  full  of  instruction  regarding  the  rise  of  the  great  ideas  of  science  and  philos- 
ophy ;  and  he  describes  in  an  impressive  manner  and  with  dramatic  effect  the  way  re- 
ligious authority  has  employed  the  secular  power  to  obstruct  the  progress  of  knowledge 
and  crush  out  the  spirit  of  investigation.  While  there  is  not  in  his  book  a  word  of  dis- 
respect for  things  sacred,  he  writes  with  a  directness  of  speech,  and  a  vividness  of  char- 
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earnest  with  his  work.  The  '  History  of  the  Conflict  between  Religion  and  Science ' 
is  a  fitting  sequel  to  the  '  History  of  the  Intellectual  Development  of  Europe,'  and  will 
add  to  its  author's  already  high  reputation  as  a  philosophic  historian." — A''.  Y.  Tribune. 

THEOLOGY  IN  THE  ENGLISH  POETS. 

COWPER,   COLERIDGE,   WORDSWORTH,   and   BURNS.     By 
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lightened  views  of  theology." — London  Athenteum. 

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